Mechanical meta-materials

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides meta-materials with an actively controllable mechanical property. The meta-material includes a deformable structure and a set of activation elements. The activation elements are controllable between multiple states. The meta-material includes a first value for a mechanical property when one or more of the activation elements is in the first activation state and includes a second value for the mechanical property when the activation elements have been activated to the second activation state. In one aspect, the meta-material resembles a composite material where the connectivity between the component materials or shape and arrangement of the component materials is dynamically controllable so as to affect a mechanical property of the meta-material.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) from co-pendingU.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/552,456, which isincorporated by reference for all purposes.

U.S. GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

This application was made in part with government support under contractnumber FA8650-04-C-7140 awarded by the United States Air Force ResearchLaboratory and Defense Advanced Research Project Agency. The governmenthas certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to a composite material having a controllablemechanical property. More particularly, the invention relates to acomposite meta-material with a property that may be altered afterfabrication and during usage.

Historically, man was initially limited in materials selection to whatwas available around him: wood, stones and bones. He eventually gainedthe ability to refine naturally occurring materials such as iron andbronze and to mold and shape these materials. A few millennia later, maninvented custom materials and composites, such as plastics andreinforced steel, whose mechanical properties could be tailored duringfabrication for a specific application.

Revolutions in materials technology led to applications revolutions. TheIron and Bronze Ages produced shaped weapons, farm tools, jewelry, andeating utensils. Composite materials at the turn of the 20th-centuryenabled a wide array of new applications. Flight leveraged newlightweight and high strength materials; steel-reinforced concrete builtbigger buildings and bridges; and plastics led to revolutions in toysand other industries.

These materials allowed the designer or builder to select from a widerange of mechanical properties for a given application. However, oncethe material is selected and incorporated into a device or structure,its mechanical properties are fixed. The ability to actively control amechanical property of a material during usage would be useful in manyapplications—and enable many new ones. Existing materials that can varya mechanical property are still very limited and may be divided into twocategories: active materials and intrinsically adaptive materials.

Intrinsically adaptive materials undergo transformations in theirmolecular or microscopic structure in response to external stimuli,which results in a mechanical property change. Examples of intrinsicallyadaptive materials include thermally responsive materials, such asrubber and shape memory polymers, where stiffness and damping vary basedon temperature; magentorheological and electrorheological fluids wherethe material undergoes a microstructural transformation in response toan external magnetic or electric field; and polymer gels where thestiffness changes depending on the amount of fluid in the polymericmatrix. These materials can exhibit undesirable temperature sensitivity.Also, these materials provide limited control. For example, it is notpossible to independently vary elasticity and damping for thesematerials or to control an electrorheological fluid between liquid/solidextremes.

Active materials act as energy transducers that convert betweenelectrical (or thermal) energy and mechanical energy of deformation.Examples of active materials include piezoelectric ceramics,magnetostrictive materials (including ferromagnetic shape memoryalloys), and electroactive polymers. For these materials, theirparticular energy conversion mechanism often limits the range ofmechanical properties that can be obtained. In addition, control of amechanical property for an active material is subject to physicallimits, such as maximum energy output and speed of response for theactive material.

Based on the foregoing, materials selection is still limited andmaterials with one or more controllable mechanical properties largelyremain an unmet need.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides meta-materials with an activelycontrollable mechanical property. The meta-material includes adeformable or reconfigurable structure and a set of activation elements.The activation elements are controllable between multiple states. Themeta-material includes a first value for a mechanical property when oneor more of the activation elements is in the first activation state andincludes a second value for the mechanical property when the activationelements have been activated to the second activation state. In oneaspect, the meta-material resembles a composite material whose structureor connectivity is controllable so as to affect a mechanical property ofthe meta-material.

One exemplary meta-material includes a compliant layer as the deformablestructure and a set of rigid activation elements coupled to thecompliant layer. Each rigid activation element may be electrostaticallyclamped to another rigid activation element or to the compliant layer soas to increase its coupling to another rigid activation element. Thischanges connectivity of the meta-material. When multiple activationelements are clamped (activated) together, the meta-material increasesin stiffness, damping or another mechanical property. When clamping isturned off (de-activation), the meta-material mechanically resembles thecompliant layer. Correspondingly, stiffness or another mechanicalproperty for this meta-material may be controlled to range from nearlythat of the compliant layer to that of the rigid material when all theactivation elements are electrostatically clamped.

These controllable meta-materials find wide use. For example,meta-materials may be included in a device enabling tunable impedance.The composites can also be multifunctional materials: they can minimizesize and mass by acting both as controllable mechanical components andas supporting structures. One such multifunctional use is a robotic orvehicular skin that is protective, adaptive and functional (e.g., energyabsorbing).

In one aspect, the present invention relates to a meta-material. Themeta-material includes a deformable or reconfigurable structure(henceforth referred to as a deformable structure for simplicity) and aset of activation elements. Each activation element a) couples to thedeformable structure, b) includes a component that participates in anactivation mechanism, and c) is configured to change between a firstactivation state and a second activation state. The meta-materialincludes a first value for a mechanical property when at least one ofthe activation elements is in the first activation state and includes asecond value for the mechanical property when the at least oneactivation element has been activated to the second activation state.

In another aspect, the present invention relates to a meta-material thatoffers stiffness control. The meta-material includes a deformablestructure and a set of activation elements. Each activation element a)couples to the deformable structure, b) includes a relatively stiffcomponent, and c) is configured to change between a first activationstate and a second activation state. The meta-material includes a firststiffness when at least one of the activation elements is in the firstactivation state and the meta-material includes a second stiffness whenthe at least one activation element has been activated to the secondactivation state.

In yet another aspect, the present invention relates to a meta-materialthat offers damping control. The meta-material includes a first dampingcoefficient when at least one of the activation elements is in the firstactivation state and the meta-material includes a second dampingcoefficient when the at least one activation element has been activatedto the second activation state.

In still another aspect, the present invention relates to anelectrostatically clamping meta-material. The meta-material includes adeformable structure and a set of activation elements. Each activationelement includes a stiff component that couples to the deformablestructure. The meta-material includes a first value for a mechanicalproperty when at least one of the activation elements is notelectrostatically clamped to another activation element and themeta-material includes a second value for the mechanical property whenthe at least one activation element has been electrostatically clampedto another activation element.

In another aspect, the present invention relates to a method ofcontrolling a mechanical property for a meta-material. The methodcomprises activating at least one activation element from a firstactivation state to a second activation state. The meta-materialincludes a first value for the mechanical property when the at least oneactivation element is in the first activation state and includes asecond value for the mechanical property when the at least oneactivation element has been activated to the second activation state.

In yet another aspect, the present invention relates to a method ofvarying stiffness using a meta-material. The method comprises activatingat least one activation element from a first activation state to asecond activation state. The at least one activation element includes amodulus of elasticity greater than that of the deformable structure. Themeta-material includes a first stiffness when the at least oneactivation element is in the first activation state and themeta-material includes a second stiffness when the at least oneactivation element has been activated to the second activation state.

In still another aspect, the present invention relates to a method ofchanging shape of a meta-material. The method comprises at leastpartially de-activating one or more activation elements. The method alsocomprises applying a force to the deformable structure such that themeta-material acquires a new shape. The method further comprisesactivating the one or more activation elements when the meta-materialacquires the new shape.

In another aspect, the present invention relates to a method absorbingenergy using a meta-material. The method comprises activating at leastone activation element from a first activation state to a secondactivation state. The meta-material includes a first value for amechanical property when the at least one activation element is in thefirst activation state and includes a second value for the mechanicalproperty when the at least one activation element has been activated tothe second activation state. The method further comprises applying aforce to the meta-material such that the deformable structure deforms.

These and other features and advantages of the present invention will bedescribed in the following description of the invention and associatedfigures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A illustrates a portion of a meta-material in accordance with oneembodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 1B illustrates the meta-material of FIG. 1A after being stretchedin a lateral direction when activation elements included in themeta-material are de-activated.

FIG. 1C illustrates a portion of a meta-material with rigid activationelements on both sides of a compliant layer in accordance with anotherembodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 2A illustrates a meta-material in accordance with a specificembodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 2B illustrates a meta-material in accordance with another specificembodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 2C illustrates the meta-material of FIG. 2A or FIG. 2B with an outof plane deformation.

FIGS. 2D and 2E illustrate a meta-material including compliantelectrodes and bendable but not extendable activation elements inaccordance with another embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 2F illustrates a doubly controllable meta-material in accordancewith one embodiment of the present invention.

FIGS. 2G and 2H illustrate a meta-material with a common electrode inaccordance with another embodiment of the present invention.

FIGS. 2I and 2J illustrate a meta-material including two compliantlayers that on opposite sides of a compliant electrode in accordancewith another embodiment of the present invention.

FIGS. 2K and 2L illustrate a meta-material disposed in a cylindricaltopology in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 3A illustrates a cross-section of a meta-material that provides theability to control bending stiffness as well as planar stiffness inaccordance with a specific embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 3B illustrates an expanded portion of the meta-material of FIG. 3Athat permits mechanical clamping.

FIG. 4A illustrates a meta-material including magnetic activationelements in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 4B illustrates the meta-material of FIG. 4A after activation of allelements in the meta-material.

FIG. 5A illustrates a meta-material in accordance with anotherembodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 5B illustrates a multilayer meta-material including the activationelements used in the meta-material of FIG. 5A.

FIG. 5C shows the meta-material of FIG. 5B after activation of allelements.

FIGS. 6A-6C illustrate a modular meta-material useful for controllingbending stiffness in accordance with a specific embodiment of thepresent invention.

FIG. 7A illustrates an activation element of a meta-material that usesand locks in a shape change to increase stiffness in accordance with aspecific embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 7B shows the activation element of FIG. 7A after activation.

FIG. 7C illustrates a “snap-through” bistable meta-material inaccordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 7D illustrates the bistable meta-material of FIG. 7C afteractivation.

FIG. 7E demonstrates the bistable meta-material of FIG. 7C can bemanufactured using a simple lay-up process.

FIG. 7F illustrates a meta-material that includes a stack of planar“bow” actuators in accordance with one embodiment of the presentinvention.

FIG. 7G shows many bow actuators of FIG. 7F grouped into a honeycombstructure and stacked in parallel.

FIGS. 8A and 8B illustrates a meta-material with activation elementsarranged over the surface so as to allow stiffness and damping controlin response to any planar direction in accordance with anotherembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 8C illustrates a meta-material comprised of several stacked layersof component meta-materials so as to allow for greater thickness andcontrol over forces and moments in any direction in accordance withanother embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 9 illustrates a tentacle robot including a cylindricalmeta-material and used in an exemplary space application.

FIGS. 10A-10C illustrate three exemplary coiled meta-material designs.

FIG. 11A illustrates a simplified view of a meta-material weave inaccordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 11B illustrates a simplified view of a meta-material weave that canbe rigidized by clamping it between two more rigid layers in accordancewith another embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 12 illustrates a process flow for altering a mechanical property ina meta-material in accordance with one embodiment of the presentinvention.

FIG. 13 illustrates a process flow for changing shape of a meta-materialin accordance with another embodiment of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The present invention is described in detail with reference to a fewpreferred embodiments as illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Inthe following description, numerous specific details are set forth inorder to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. Itwill be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art, that the presentinvention may be practiced without some or all of these specificdetails. In other instances, well known process steps and/or structureshave not been described in detail in order to not unnecessarily obscurethe present invention.

Overview

A meta-material includes a controllable mechanical property. Themechanical property may be dynamically changed during usage—afterproduction or fabrication. A meta-material is similar to a conventionalcomposite in that it includes more than one material component. However,a meta-material of the present invention incorporates a controllableelement that may be dynamically activated.

The meta-material includes a deformable or reconfigurable structure anda set of activation elements: The deformable structure may include asingle material or a more complex structure including multiplecomponents. One simpler deformable structure is a compliant sheet. Inthis case, de-activation of all the activation elements causes themeta-material to substantially resemble mechanical properties of thecompliant sheet. A complex structure may include multiple componentsthat interact to form a single operable mechanism (e.g., a fibrous weaveof FIG. 11 or the structures FIGS. 4-5). In shape changing embodiments,the deformable structure includes enough compliance to be responsive toexternal forces responsible for the shape change. Some deformablestructures include a design where shape of the structure affects amechanical property of the meta-material (FIGS. 7A-7B).

Activation of one or more of the activation elements alters themechanical property of interest. In one embodiment, the activationelements are separate individual structures coupled to the deformablestructure, such as high stiffness and overlapping ‘scales’ on acompliant sheet (FIGS. 2A-2L). In another embodiment, the activationelements are portions of a common material combined with the deformablestructure, such as separably controllable active areas on anelectroactive polymer.

The deformable structure may include an existing structure and does notneed to be a separate element that is unique to the meta-material. Anexample is given below where scales are disposed on the surface of atentacle. In this case the deformable structure is the tentacle itself.The deformable structure need not be a passive material or structure.Alternatively, it can include active materials that undergo shape changeor induce forces upon electrical stimulation for example. For example,the deformable structure could be a sheet of electroactive polymer thatexpands in response to the application of a suitable voltage. In anotherexample, the deformable structure could be an electrostatic motor wheretwo relatively rigid sheets slide past each other in response toelectrical stimulation.

The activation elements in a meta-material employ an activationmechanism. In general, the activation mechanism may employ any suitablemethod or system for controllably altering a mechanical property of ameta-material. In one embodiment, the activation mechanism iselectrostatic clamping, where two conductive surfaces are clampedtogether due to electrostatic forces created by an applied electricfield. In another embodiment, the activation mechanism may includemechanical clamping, where two components or surfaces clamp together andlock in place due to mechanical forces induced by levers, springs, orother means that operate in a direction separate from an external load.Activation elements that respond to magnetic input to change amechanical property of the meta-material are also described. Theactivation mechanism may include other techniques. Some examples includeelectromagnetics (for example, solenoids or motors), piezoelectrics,electroactive polymers, shape memory alloys, metals and other materialsthat change size or shape with temperature, polymer gels that changesize in response to electrical stimulation or chemical gradient,bladders, cylinder or other chambers that change shape in response tofluid that is added or removed from the chamber, and electrorheologicalor magnetorheological fluids located between two rigid elements orwithin a deformable cell, or any other actuator that can move a clampingmechanism. The controllable element may also include active orintrinsically variable materials and their respective activationmechanisms. A meta-material can also include other activation mechanismsthat are not stand-alone materials, such as electrostatically orelectromagnetically induced clamping or motion. In some cases, theactivation elements may combine two or more of these mechanisms. Forexample, mechanical locking may be combined with electrostatic orelectromagnetic actuation.

The activation elements are configured to change between activationstates. The meta-material's mechanical property changes with differentactivation states of one or more activation elements. For electrostaticclamping, the activation states may include unclamped, fully clamped andpartially clamped. For mechanical clamping, activation states mayinclude mechanically locked, free, and frictionally related. Magneticactivation may include magnetic states similar to electrostatic clampingor mechanical clamping. In addition, it may include permanent magneticforce as created by permanent magnets. Different positions of anactivation element may also convey different states. In general, theactivation states will vary with the particular activation mechanism, asone of skill in the art will appreciate.

In one embodiment, the activation elements change connectivity of themeta-material when activated. This may include changing connectivitybetween activation elements and/or changing connectivity between theactivation elements and the deformable structure. This change ofconnectivity need not involve a large deformation of the structure andthus we say that the structure may alternatively be reconfigurableinstead of deformable. An example of a change in connectivity betweenactivation elements is provided below where honeycomb structures arediscussed (e.g. FIG. 4). The honeycomb is comprised of an array ofinterconnected kinematic mechanisms with relatively rigid sides flexiblejoints. When not in the activated state, the mechanisms are free tomove. However, in one embodiment, electrostatic clamping creates a newrigid side element that divides the mechanism into two truss-likestructures that cannot deform in response to an external load. This isreferred to as a change in connectivity because all of the elements ofthe structure are there, but by activation we can connect elements andgreatly change the mechanical response of the structure.

An example of a change in connectivity between activation elements andthe deformable structure is provided below (e.g. FIGS. 1 and 2). In thiscase the activation changes the connection between the deformablestructure and the rigid elements. In one state the deformable structureis connected to the external load, making the material appearlow-stiffness. In another state the rigid elements are now connected tothe deformable structure, which in turn is connected to the externalload thereby making the material appear stiff.

A meta-material is considered herein as a composite and sufficientlyhomogenous to be a material rather than a collection of easily separablesubsystems. In one sense, the set of activation elements collectivelyforms one material in the composite, and the meta-material is considereda composite material where one of the materials in the composite isexternally controllable. Some composites include a “meso-scale”structure that can be actively changed to modulate a mechanicalproperty. “Meso-scale” is defined here to be greater than molecularscale, but smaller than the macroscopic scale of interest in anapplication. In some cases meso-scale features can be quite small andproduced by microfabrication techniques. In other cases, they can belarge (such as inches). The meso-scale meta-material is sized such thatits activation elements are small compared to the importantcharacteristic size of the overall meta-material (such as the overallthickness, length, or amount of deformation).

One advantage of the present invention is that it is scale invariant.For example, planar designs where rigid activation elements are coupledto a compliant structure may be implemented in a wide range of sizes. Inone embodiment, the activation elements are large and in the range ofseveral inches. In another embodiment, the activation elements areminute and not readily visible to the human eye. Thus, principles andcomponents for several embodiments described herein work regardless ofsize for the activation elements and deformable structure. Manymeta-materials described herein may be implemented on both the micro(less than 1 mm) and macro (greater than 1 mm) level.

Mechanical properties that may be dynamically altered for ameta-material of the present invention include stiffness, damping,rigidity, toughness, resilience, and elastic modulus. Other mechanicalproperties, as well as the overall shape may also be controlled, andseveral are described below.

Similar to existing composites (e.g., reinforced concrete) whoseindividual materials (concrete and steel) are selected for theirindividual desired properties (compressive and tensile strength,respectively), mechanical properties of a meta-material may also betailored and selected during design and fabrication. The presentinvention, however, provides another degree-of-freedom to materialsselection: ingredients used in a meta-material may also be selectedduring design and fabrication according to their ability to dynamicallyproduce changes in a mechanical property during usage. Meta-materialsthus permit designers to choose material components based on theirstatic and/or dynamic performance. Designers may also tailor ameta-material based on its dynamic structure. This permits the freedomto choose suitable active or intrinsic materials and a suitableactivation mechanism, such as one with low energy of actuation.Designing a meso-scale structure then includes material selection,activation element selection and design, and deformable structure (e.g.,geometry and connectivity) design—weighed in both static and dynamicperformance. This design flexibility permits a meta-material to varyover a wide range for controllable mechanical property of interest, suchas stiffness.

In some designs, a mechanical property of a meta-material may changevia: a) activation of one or more activation elements and theirindividual or combined effects on the mechanical property; b)acquisition of a different state for the deformable structure thatchanges the mechanical property, such as a new shape and resultingstiffness; and c) combinations of a) and b).

A meta-material as described herein may include any number of individualactivation elements. From about 1 to about 1000 activation elements aresuitable in many designs. More than 1000 activation elements may beused. Indeed, some meta-materials may include thousands of individuallypatterned activation elements on a compliant substrate. Somemeta-materials may include from about 10 to about 100 activationelements.

The activation elements mechanically couple to the deformable structure.In general, coupling may refer to direct or indirect coupling,attachment, etc. Indirect coupling may include activation elementattachment to an intermediate object or structure, which then attachesor otherwise couples to the deformable structure. Attachment may includechemical bonding such as adhesives, mechanical fastening, or any othersuitable technique the prevents relative motion between two objectsbeing attached. One of skill in the art is aware of different techniquesto mechanically couple two objects and techniques suitable for specificmaterials. For example, a suitable adhesive will depend upon the twomaterials being joined, as one of skill in the art will appreciate.

External control may be flexibly achieved. Some embodiments employelectrical control, magnetic control, or other techniques according tothe activation mechanism and operability of each activation element.Numerous examples will be described in further detail below. In oneembodiment, mechanical connectivity of the deformable structure andactivation elements is externally controlled in order to vary amechanical property of the composite meta-material as a whole. Theexternal control may use small amounts of energy to make large changesin the property of the structure. The present invention thus allowslow-energy, small changes in component material shape, connectivity, orstructure to produce larger changes in a mechanical property for themeta-material. Some embodiments of the present invention permitdirectional control of a mechanical property, such as stiffness. In manycases, the external control adds little mass or complexity, asexemplified by one or more common compliant electrodes (FIGS. 2G-2J).

Exemplary Meta-Materials

FIG. 1A illustrates a portion of a meta-material 10 in accordance withone embodiment of the present invention. Meta-material 10 includes adeformable structure 12 and a set of activation elements 14. In thiscase, deformable structure 12 includes a compliant substrate. FIG. 1Billustrates the compliant substrate 12 and meta-material 10 beingstretched in a lateral direction 16 when the activation elements 14 arede-activated. While meta-materials will now be described as objects,systems and components, those skilled in the art will recognize that thepresent invention also encompasses methods of performing actions relatedto these objects, systems and components.

Meta-material 10 includes a set of rigid activation elements 14 coupledto compliant substrate 12. Each activation element 14 comprises a rigidcomponent 19 and an electrode 18. An attached portion 19 a of rigidcomponent 19 mechanically couples to the deformable structure 12. Inthis instance, portion 19 a directly attaches to compliant substrate 12using a suitable adhesive, for example. Other forms of direct andindirect coupling may also be used. An unbound, or ‘free’, portion 19 bof each rigid component 19, which is not directly attached to compliantsubstrate 12, includes electrode 18 disposed thereon. In a specificembodiment, electrode 18 is disposed as a thin layer on a surface of arigid component 19. For example, electrode 18 may include a metalsputtered layer disposed on a thin polyimide sheet 19. While only twoactivation elements 14 are shown for simplicity and understanding,meta-material 10 may include additional activation elements 14 in anyplanar direction on the top surface of deformable structure 12.

Activation element 14 includes two states: a) a de-activated state inwhich the free portion 19 b is not coupled to another activation element14, and b) an activated state in which the free portion 19 belectrostatically (or by other activation means such as electromagneticclamping) clamps to another activation element 14. In the electrostaticcase, in order for clamping to occur, the voltages of each electrode 18of each adjacent element 14 must be different. The meta-material in FIG.1A may be extended in any direction and include more than two activationelements 14. In this case the voltages of any two adjacent activationelements must be different. This difference is normally achieved byhaving one element at an applied voltage and the other at a relativeground potential or voltage of opposite polarity.

Meta-material 10 thus employs electrostatic clamping as an activationmechanism. Electrostatic clamping adheres one material to another usingan electric field across an insulator or dielectric material. In thiscase, the insulator includes the rigid component 19 of each activationelement 14. An electrostatic clamping voltage is applied via electrode18 and external control electronics (not shown) in electricalcommunication with electrode 18. The electrostatic clamping voltagetemporarily fixes the free portion 19 b of activation element 14 a tothe attached portion 19 a of another activation element 14 b thatoverlaps with the free portion 19 b.

Thus, if there is no electrostatic clamping voltage on the activationelements 14, the free portions 19 b for activation elements 14 cantranslate freely relative to each other and relative to the compliantsubstrate 12. This condition allows the compliant substrate 12—andmeta-material 10—to bend or stretch according to mechanical propertiesof compliant substrate 12.

Once an electrostatic clamping voltage is applied, however, theactivation elements 14 clamp to each other. This activation preventsrelative motion between the two activation elements 14, and changes themechanical properties of meta-material 10. For example, while the twoactivation elements 14 are electrostatically clamped together in theposition shown in FIG. 1A, stiffness for meta-material 10 increasesaccording to the stiffness of each rigid component 19. Mechanicalproperties other than the stiffness may change as well, such as thetoughness, resilience, shear strength, etc, as will be described infurther detail below. The bond between two rigid components 19 andactivation elements 14 continues for as long as the electrostaticclamping voltage is applied up point where electrostatic attraction canno longer hold the stretching force. With suitable design, the clampingforce (which is the resulting friction force due primarily to theelectrostatic force exerted perpendicular to the surface) in this planardirection can be as great as the yield strength of the scale material.

The stiffness along direction 16 for meta-material 10 then varies from aminimum stiffness, when no activation elements 14 are activated and themeta-material 10 substantially assumes the mechanical properties ofcompliant substrate 12, to a maximum stiffness when all of theactivation elements 14 are engaged by clamping to their adjacentpartner. Thus, when no activation elements 14 are activated,meta-material 10 may be stretched in the lateral direction 16 as shownin FIG. 1B according to the compliance of substrate 12. Engagingactivation elements 14, however, stiffens meta-material 10—and may lockthe meta-material 10 into its current position depending on any externalforces applied to the meta-material. The maximum stiffness formeta-material 10 will be the equal to the stiffness for the materialused in each rigid component 19 provided that the pulling force 16 isnot great enough to overcome the electrostatic clamping force betweenthe overlapping activation elements 14.

Some meta-materials and activation mechanisms permit tunable control ofa mechanical property. Consider damping. In this case, damping formeta-material 10 may vary between the minimum and maximum extremes. Ingeneral, each activation element 14 provides a controllable amount offrictional resistance (damping) to external deflection according to a)the strength of the applied electrostatic clamp, and b) the amount ofsurface area for the electrostatic clamp. Both these effects vary thefriction between the two clamped elements. These elements slide withrespect to each other when the material is stretched in the plane. Thisfriction induces damping. Varying the electrostatic clamp voltage willalter strength of the electrostatic bond between two activation elements14. In this manner, control electronics may be used to dynamically alter(e.g., during usage in response to closed loop control) the dampingprovided by meta-material 10 by increasing or decreasing theelectrostatic clamp voltage provided to one or more activation elements14. For example, the applied voltage may be reduced such that thedamping provided by each activation element 14 reduces by one-half.Other voltage fractions and resultant strength levels may be used, asdesired. In addition, the amount of surface area may also be dynamicallyvaried to affect changes in damping for meta-material 10.

In one embodiment, meta-material 10 includes separable control forsubsets of activation elements 14. In a specific embodiment,meta-material 10 comprises independent addressing and control for eachactivation element 14 in the meta-material 10. For embodiments where themeta-material 10 includes dozens or hundreds or thousands of individualactivation elements 14, aggregate stiffness for the meta-material maythen be tunably controlled by activating an appropriate number ofactivation elements 14 to achieve a desired stiffness. For example, if anumber of elements are activated so that the total length of the clampedelements comprises half the total length of the compliant substrate 12then the material will have twice the stiffness of the substrate alonein the direction along this measured length. The precision of tunablecontrol will depend on the number of activation elements 14 andgranularity of electrical addressing.

The minimum and maximum stiffness provided by meta-material 10 may betailored before usage during design and fabrication, similar to theconventional design of composite materials. For example, elasticproperties of each rigid component 19 may be selected during design,which will affect the maximum stiffness provided by meta-material 10.The surface area overlap between activation elements 14 may also bepre-determined for an application to provide a desired maximum strengthat which stiffness may be controlled. In addition, compliant substrate12 may be designed and selected to provide a desired minimum stiffness.

Meta-materials 10 and 20 illustrate simplified designs. Other designsare possible. For example, the electrostatic clamping can be of anon-planar topology. An example of this is a fiber or ribbon that fitsinside of a tube. The fiber or ribbon and tube each have an electrodeinsulated by a dielectric insulating layer. When not activated thefibers or ribbons can slide inside of the tube. When activated,electrostatic clamping between the fiber or ribbon and the tube preventssliding or allows sliding with additional damping (as desired).Alternatively each fiber or ribbon can contain a single conductingelectrode that is completely covered by an insulator. In this caseactivation is produced by charging adjacent fibers with the oppositepolarity so that the clamp to each other. These tubular structures maybe arrayed on the surface or throughout the volume of a deformable orreconfigurable structure. They may be aligned in a single direction tocontrol stiffness or damping in that direction only or they may bealigned in several directions. The fibers may run the length of thematerial or only partway through the material. Meta-materials may alsoinclude multiple embodiments described herein combined into a singlestructure. For example, stacking several of the meta-materials describedin FIG. 1A could form a thicker meta-material. In this case, a spacermay be disposed between layers to ensure that the rigid components 14are not forced against the compliant substrate 12. The spacer could belocated at the attachment point of the activation element so as not tointerfere with the motion of the activation elements. An example of sucha meta-material composed of stacked layers is presented below in FIG.8C.

If the meta-material is comprised of stacked layers then it is alsopossible to activate the layers differently so that the resultingmechanical properties is a combination of the stiffness or damping ofeach layer. For example, some layers may focus on controlling dampingwhile others could focus on controlling stiffness. In another example,some of the layers could be made stiffer than the others so that theresulting stiffness is a combination of the stiffness of each layer.Note that each layer need not be of identical geometry or use identicalmaterials. For example, some layers may be designed for providingdamping control while other layers are better designed for stiffnesscontrol or providing a greater strength in the clamped state (such as byallowing a lot of overlap of activation elements). In another example,some of the layers may be more optimally designed to provide one rangeof stiffness while other layers are more optimally designed to provideanother range of stiffness (such as by selecting the underlyingdeformable layer or the size and spatial density of the activationelements). Stiffness can then be controlled over a wide range but to avery fine degree by activating a combination of layers that are designedto function best over a specific range of stiffness.

FIG. 1C illustrates a portion of a meta-material 20 in accordance withanother embodiment of the present invention. Meta-material 20 includes adeformable structure 22 and a set of activation elements 24. In thiscase, deformable structure 22 includes a compliant layer whose thicknessand elastic properties are selected to provide mechanical properties forthe meta-material 20 when no activation elements 24 are activated.Activation elements 24 a and 24 b are disposed on a top surface ofcompliant layer 22, while activation element 24 c is disposed on theopposite surface of compliant layer 22.

Similar to meta-material 10, meta-material 20 relies on electrostaticclamping as an activation mechanism and includes a set of rigidactivation elements 24. Surface electrostatic clamping activationelements are also referred to herein as ‘scales’. The scales includesmall (relative to the deformation and application of interest) rigidelements on the surface of a deformable structure that form a covering.The scales may include similar parts that collectively form a largerstructure such as a controllable skin. In one embodiment, scales 24 aremetal and double both as a rigid component and an electrode.Meta-material 20 may then be externally and electrically controlled tochange between a compliant de-activated state and a rigid activatedstate. In the de-activated state, meta-material 20 substantially assumesthe properties of compliant layer 22. In the activated state, themeta-material substantially assumes the properties of the rigidactivation elements 14, as limited by the clamping strength.

Meta-material 20 mainly differs from meta-material 10 in that the rigidactivation elements 24 are on opposite surfaces of the deformablestructure 22. In this case, an electric field is established across thecompliant layer 22, which doubly acts as a dielectric layer anddeformable structure. When the clamping voltage is applied, theactivation elements 14 form a continuous string of rigid material, eventhough the activation elements 14 are on opposite sides of the compliantlayer 22 (they still vertically overlap to allow electrostaticclamping).

In a specific embodiment, an electrically controllable meta-material 20employs electrostatic clamping of metallic rigid elements on anelastomeric compliant layer 22. In this case, each metallic elementdoubles as both the rigid element and electrode. When the metallicscales electrostatically clamp to the elastomer, meta-material 20 has astiffness and strength similar to those of the metal. When the metallicscales are de-activated, the meta-material has stiffness resembling thestretchable elastomer. Intermediate strengths and stiffnesses can beachieved by varying the applied clamping voltage, or by altering thenumber of metallic scales that are electrostatically clamped,respectively.

In another specific embodiment, each activation element 24 may includesurface roughness or lips to enhance clamping strength. FIG. 3A shows anexample of such activation elements suitable for use with manyembodiments described herein. Lighter clamping also allows sliding ofthe activation elements 24 with friction as described above for theprevious embodiment meta-material 10. This permits damping control usingmeta-material 20, as will be described in further detail below.

FIG. 2A illustrates a meta-material 40 in accordance with a specificembodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2B illustrates a meta-material50 in accordance with another specific embodiment of the presentinvention.

Each activation element 44 attaches to compliant layer 42 at anattachment point 45. Applying an electrostatic clamping voltage to eachactivation element 44 also causes a rigid portion of each element toadhere to an adjacent activation element 44. Collectively, when aclamping voltage is applied to all activation elements 44 inmeta-material 40, the activation elements 44 form a continuous rigidlayer that regulates mechanical properties of meta-material 40.

Referring now to FIG. 2B, each activation element 54 in meta-material 50includes an insulating layer 56. The insulating layer 56 is disposed ona rigid component so as to rest between a) an electrode of oneactivation element 54 and b) another overlapping activation element 54on the same surface of compliant layer 52. The insulating layer 56enables electrostatic clamping between two overlapping activationelements 54. In this design, compliant layer 52 functions as amechanical substrate only, while insulating layer 56 is used forelectrostatic clamping between activation elements 54. The compliantlayer 42 design of FIG. 2A is simpler from the perspective of the numberof materials used, but the compliant layer 42 serves both electrical andmechanical roles, so material requirements for compliant layer 42 aremore stringent.

Meta-material 40 of FIG. 2A operates similar to meta-material 20described above in that an electric field is established across thecompliant layer 42 to provide electrostatic clamping for active elements44. For example, a positive voltage may be applied to each activationelement 42 on the top surface while a negative voltage is applied toeach activation element on the bottom surface. For the meta-material 50of FIG. 2B however, adjacent active elements 54 on one surface ofcompliant layer 52 alternate polarity of the applied voltages to createa potential difference between overlapping activation elements 54 onthat surface and across each insulating layer 56.

In another embodiment similar to that of FIG. 2A, the active elementsconsist of a rigid layer that also serves as an insulating layer with aconductive layer on top of this insulating layer that serves as anelectrode. In a specific embodiment of this meta-material, the compliantlayer is a silicone polymer such as Dow Corning HS IV (Dow CorningCorp., Midland, Mich.) that is from 0.01″ to 0.05″ thick. The insulatingrigid layer is polyimide such as Kapton (DuPont Corporation, Route 23South and DuPont Road, Circleville, Ohio 43113) from 0.00025″ to 0.002″thick. The conductive layer is a metallization coating of gold that isdeposited on top of the polyimide by sputtering or other means. An ACvoltage from 500V to 4000V is applied across the scales. In anotherspecific embodiment the conductive layer is carbon-impregnated siliconesuch as RTV 60-CON from Stockwell Rubber Co. (Philadelphia, Pa.)approximately 0.005″ thick and the insulating layer is polyurethane0.001″ thick such as PT6100S from Deerfield Polyurethane Inc.(P.O. Box186, South Deerfield, Mass. 01373). In this embodiment the rigid layeris Kapton polyimide that is 0.002″ thick. The rigid layer is attached tothe surface of the electrode opposite that of the insulating layer usingthe carbon-impregnated silicone electrode as an adhesive.

Meta-materials 40 and 50 are each capable of planar and/or out of planedeformations. Planar deformations may include linear or planar elasticor plastic stretching, for example. Out of plane deformations mayinclude bending, twisting, shearing, indenting, etc. Deformations mayalso include combinations of planar and out of plane deformations. FIG.2C illustrates a perspective view of any of meta-materials 10, 20, 40 or50 with out of plane deformations. When such a position has beenachieved (e.g., using an electroactive polymer, see FIG. 2F), theactivation elements may then be activated to lock the meta-material inits current position. As will be described in further detail below, thisability to position and reshape a meta-material while compliant and thenlock in the meta-material in a desired position lends use of themeta-material to morphing and other variable stiffness or shape controlapplications.

The present invention also contemplates other electrostatic clampingdesigns. FIGS. 2D and 2E illustrate a meta-material 60 in accordancewith another embodiment of the present invention. Meta-material 60includes activation elements 62 disposed on a single side of adeformable structure 64. In this case, deformable structure 64 includesa compliant layer with compliant electrodes 68 disposed thereon.

Each activation element 62 includes a non-extensible component 65 and aninsulation layer 66. Non-extensible component 65 provides planarstiffness and also doubles as an addressable electrode for eachactivation element. Insulation layer 66 permits electrostatic clampingacross its thickness. In an alternative embodiment, the insulation layer66 may also be the non-extensible element 65 and the electrode could bea thin coating applied to the bottom surface of this element (away fromthe compliant layer). An attachment point 63 forms a connection betweeneach activation element 62 and compliant substrate 64.

Compliant electrodes 68 are disposed on the same side of compliantsubstrate 64 as activation elements 62. In one embodiment, compliantelectrodes 68 are embedded within the surface of substrate 64. Inanother embodiment, compliant electrodes 68 comprise a thin coatingapplied in a selective area pattern to the surface of substrate 64 (FIG.2F). For example, the compliant electrode may include acarbon-impregnated polymer patterned with a stencil. The compliantelectrode 68 adds little stiffness to meta-material 60 and does notsubstantially affect de-activated expansion and contraction of compliantlayer 64. In addition, the carbon-impregnated polymer adds littlethickness to meta-material 60.

Each activation element 62 is bendable but not stretchable(non-extensible or non-extendable). For example, thin and bendable stiffcomponent 65 may include a thin layer of aluminum (e.g. similar inthickness to aluminum foil), while insulation layer 66 includes a thinand bendable layer of polyimide. Collectively, the activation element 62may bend (low bending modulus) in response to electrostatic clampingforces and a voltage difference between the metal electrode component 65and electrode 68. After activation, each bendable element 62 then formsa surface topography corresponding to electrostatic clamping forcesapplied thereto.

Collectively, when all activation elements are clamped, meta-material 60assumes a planar stiffness according to the non-stretchable stiffness ofactivation elements 62. Again, individual addressing between eachactivation element 62 and compliant electrode 68 permits granular andvariable control of damping for meta-material 60. Thus, a lesserelectrostatic clamping voltage may be applied to one or more of theactivation elements 62. Stiffness may be controlled by selectivelyaddressing only certain adjacent pairs of activation elements 62.Although not shown, it is understood that meta-material 60 may includeactivation elements 62 on both sides of the compliant substrate 64. Inone embodiment, more than one layer of activation elements may be usedto effectively control out-of-plane deformations. Multiple layers can beachieved by having activation elements on both sides of the deformablesubstrate or by stacking multiple layers of deformable substrates eachwith a single layer of activation elements (as described above).

Thus far, the embodiments have shown overlap of activation elements in aregular pattern in a single direction. That is, the scales are arrangedin rows. Such arrangements are well suited for materials where theexternal loads are applied in one direction (such as pulling on the endsof the material. A meta-material is not limited to such a simplearrangement and other arrangements are contemplated. FIGS. 8A and 8Bshow side and perspective views of a meta-material 150 having activationelements 152 that overlap over a substantially planar surface 154 sothat there is overlap between elements 152 in all planar directions.Such an arrangement of scales 152 allows the material 150 to respond asdesired to loads in all planar directions as well as bending momentsapplied to the material 150. These overlapping activation elements 152can be disposed on one or both sides of the planar surface 154.

Such a meta-material 150 may be fabricated by many means know to thoseskilled in the art. It is possible to make overlapping scales 152 bytaking advantage of the deformation of the deformable structure 154. Forexample, the deformable structure 154 can be first elongated in bothplanar directions. A flexible non-extendable layer is then deposited ontop of this deformable layer and glued at the attachment points 156.This layer is then cut or etched into discrete scales 152 (such assquares or another suitable shape) using laser cutting orphotolithographic means. The deformable layer 154 is now relaxed to aless extended state causing the scales 152 to overlap in all directions.

Several layers of meta-material 150 can be stacked to form a multilayermeta-material. FIG. 8C shows one example of how such layers may bestacked. As discussed above, adjacent meta-material 150 layers may beinter-connected with spacers 158 located at one or more attachmentpoints of individual activation elements 152.

FIGS. 2G and 2H illustrate a meta-material 110 in accordance withanother embodiment of the present invention. Meta-material 110 includesactivation elements 112, compliant substrate 114, electrode 116, andrigid elements 118.

Activation elements 112 are bendable but not substantially extendable.For example, elements 112 may include a thin and bendable layer of metal(e.g., similar to tin foil thickness or another thickness so long as thelayer is bendably responsive to electrostatic clamping forces) oranother non-conductive material (e.g., polyimide). Activation ofelements 112 beings them into contact with the top surface of compliantsubstrate 114. At this point, planar stiffness of the material controlsplanar deflection of each activation element. As with any stiff or rigidmaterial, a large enough force will lead to minor elastic deflection,but non-extendable herein refers to the concept that the material isstiff enough to resist deflection for forces expected to be witnessed bymeta-material 110.

Compliant electrode 116 services electrostatic clamping for eachactivation element 112. For example, a voltage may be applied via commonelectrode 16 to simultaneously trigger each activation element 112.Alternatively, compliant electrode 116 may be used as ground whereactivation element 112 is individually addressed via an electrodeincluded therein (e.g., a conductive activation element or an electrodepatterned on a non-conductive activation material) to apply anelectrostatic clamping voltage. In either case, compliant substrate 114acts as an insulation layer between electrode 116 and each activationelement 112.

Electrostatic clamping across compliant substrate 114 draws eachbendable activation element 112 to the top surface of compliantsubstrate 114 and connects overlapping (non-extendable) activationelements 112 and rigid elements 118. Cumulatively, meta-material 110activates to form a stiff planar material—with fewer activation elements112 than meta-material designs presented so far. This reduces complexityof meta-material 110, and provides activation elements 112 that do notnecessarily need to overlap with other activation elements 112.

FIGS. 21 and 2J illustrate a meta-material 130 in accordance withanother embodiment of the present invention. Meta-material 130 includesbendable but not extendable activation elements 131 and a layereddeformable structure 132.

Deformable structure 132 includes a buried compliant electrode 134disposed between two compliant layers 136. In this case, electrode 134services both bottom and top layers of activation elements 131 througheach respective compliant layer 136.

The absolute and relative size of each activation element is a designparameter and may vary. In one embodiment, electrostatic clampingactivation elements are sized relative to the spacing between elementsto ensure that there is surface area Sufficient overlap betweenactivation elements to allow electrostatic clamping, even when thecompliant layer undergoes maximum strain. Activation elements withsmaller absolute size allow for more intricate variations in strain fora meta-material. In one embodiment, if the activation elements areshort, then thickness of each activation element is decreased to allowfor bending during clamping and unclamping.

Width and orientation of scale-type activation elements on a planarcompliant layer may also be varied. In one embodiment that supportsexpansion in both planar directions as well as shear strains, theactivation elements are implemented with an aspect ratio (length vs.width) that is relatively low. An aspect ratio between about 1 and about5 is suitable in many embodiments. To maintain multi-dimensional planarcontrol of a mechanical property, the activation elements may overlap inboth planar directions. Other aspect ratios may be employed. In anotherembodiment, narrow activation elements (a high aspect ratio) areemployed. An aspect ratio greater than about 5 is suitable in manyembodiments. The thickness of the scales is typically much less than thelength or width. In one embodiment thickness is from 10 micrometers to1000 micrometers.

When electrostatic clamping is sufficient to prevent sliding betweenindividual activation elements, the stiffness and strength of themeta-material will not substantially depend on orientation of theelements, provided that there is sufficient overlap or voltage-inducedelectrostatic clamping in the clamped area to prevent sliding. Thepresent invention, however, is not limited to any particularorientation, layout or distribution of activation elements on adeformable structure. In one embodiment, the activation elements arealigned in perpendicular and parallel rows and columns. Distribution ofthe activation elements need not be so regular. In another embodiment,the activation elements form a radial, fanning, or another non-symmetricsurface arrangement. Scales on fish and feathers on birds are twonatural analogues that do not include perfectly regular organization ofactive elements on a deformable structure.

In some cases, Poisson contraction of a relatively thin compliant layerin a direction orthogonal to a large stretch may affect activationelements disposed on a surface of the compliant layer. To prevent suchorthogonal contraction issues, meta-materials including a compliantlayer may also include mechanisms for preventing bending, buckling orcollapse of activation elements in the contraction direction. Forexample, the compliant layer may include one or more slits or recesseson a surface in the direction of stretch. When the material is strained,the slits open wider. While locally, Poisson contraction has notchanged, the total amount of deformation in the transverse direction isreduced at the edges of the layer. This reduction in transverse motionhelps prevent buckling and also ensures that a maximum amount of overlapis maintained in the active elements.

Other deformable structures and compliant layers can be used thatinherently have less of a Poisson's contraction effect. These includecompliant foams, including so-called Zero-Poisson's or auxetic foams.

Although the present invention has so far been described with respect toa few relatively simple meta-material designs, the present inventionencompasses a wide variety of designs, shapes and structures that enabledynamic control of one or more mechanical properties. Indeed, therelative simplicity of many meta-material designs allows extension tocountless other and more complex design alternatives. For example, theembodiments described so far have focused on skins that are flat. Theinvention is not limited to such flat topologies.

FIGS. 2K and 2L illustrates a meta-material 200 disposed in acylindrical topology to vary the stiffness of a tube 202 in accordancewith one embodiment of the present invention. Tube 202 may represent afiber, rod, or another cylindrical surface or object. In one embodiment,the meta-material 200 is configured as a ‘skin’ about the outsidecylindrical surface of a rod. In another embodiment, the deformablestructure forms the main material of the rod with the activationelements functioning as a skin.

Meta-material 200 includes thin, bendable but not extendable activationelements 206. Clamping the activation elements 206 radially constrictstheir dimensions, and changes mechanical properties of meta-material200. This confers variable stiffness and damping properties tometa-material 200.

Meta-material 200 demonstrates one example of how the present inventionmay be shaped (a cylinder). Meta-materials described herein may alsoconform to an arbitrary and complex surface shapes so long as the sizeof the activation elements is smaller (typically much smaller) than thesize of the surface features.

Meta-material 200 also presents a relatively simple deformable structure(a tube or a substantially linear rod). More complex deformablestructures are possible. In one embodiment, meta-material 200 forms acoiled spring. In this case, the present invention permits dynamiccontrol of mechanical properties of the spring.

In another embodiment, tube 202 acts as a fibrous material and isassembled into a weave or a similar macro-structure. FIGS. 11A-11Billustrate a simplified view of a meta-material weave 210 in accordancewith two embodiments of the present invention. Meta-material weave 210includes a woven deformable structure 211 and fibers (such as 200) orribbons 212. This weave 210 may be formed into a cylindrical shape(e.g., laid over a cylindrical body) or may also be used in a planarform or in any surface shape much like the planar embodiments discussedpreviously. In this case, each ribbon 212 forms a planar activationelement.

Each fiber 212 or ribbon 212 in the weave may be independentlycontrolled to affect the overall performance of weave 210. In oneembodiment, fibers 212 include electrostatic clamping activationelements, which when activated, prevent fiber 212 movement including theactivation elements and reduce inter-fiber 212 movement. Thiseffectively stiffens the weave 210. This clamping may be accomplished inseveral ways. Each fiber or ribbon 212 may include a conductive layer(electrode) trapped between insulating layers. If the electrodes in thefibers or ribbons 212 in each direction of the weave are charged todifferent voltages then electrostatic clamping between these fibers orribbons will occur at the points where they cross over each other. Inusage, some inter-fiber 212 sliding may be permitted to provide damping.Such a weave 210 with dynamically variable mechanical properties wouldfind use in ballistics and other high-energy impact applications, forexample. In these applications, the ability to dynamically tailor strainto failure and elastic modulus drastically increases the amount ofenergy that may be absorbed by the weave, as will be described infurther detail below.

The meta-material 215 in FIG. 11B does not rely on ribbon-to-ribbonclamping but rather uses two flexible but non-extendable layers 214 and216 located on each side of the woven layer 210. Each of these flexiblelayers 214 and 216 includes an electrode on its outer surface. When avoltage is applied across the two electrodes, the two layers 214 and 216clamp together electrostatically and the woven layer 210 becomes trappedbetween the two flexible layers 214 and 216 and thereby prevented formdeforming. In another variation, the ribbons 212 of the woven layer 210contain electrodes that are attracted to any one of the electroded outerlayers when activated thereby restricting motion of the woven layer.

So far, the deformable structure has been relatively passive, but asnoted above, the deformable structure can also be an active material.FIG. 2F illustrates a doubly controllable meta-material 70 in accordancewith another embodiment of the present invention. Meta-material 70includes two active components: electrostatically clamping activationelements 62 and an electroactive polymer actuator 74 that serves as adeformable structure.

Activation elements 62 include an insulation layer 66 and a thin andbendable stiff component 65. Activation elements are attached to thesurface of electroactive polymer 75 at one end. Each activation elements62 couples to the electroactive polymer actuator 74 and operates similarto that described above with respect to meta-material 60. Electrodes 68,which are disposed on a top surface of electroactive polymer actuator74, service electrostatic clamping with activation elements 62.

Electroactive polymer actuator 74 includes a compliant electroactivepolymer 75, such as a dielectric elastomer. Multiple compliantelectrodes 77 are disposed on a first surface of electroactive polymer75, while a single common compliant electrode 78 is disposed on theopposite surface of electroactive polymer 75. An insulation layer 79 isdisposed between compliant electrodes 77 that service electroactivepolymer actuator 74 and electrodes 68.

Actuation using one or more of electrodes 77 and electrodes 78 causesplanar or linear expansion of electroactive polymer 75 (and a minordecrease in thickness). Electroactive polymer transducers may beconfigured in a wide variety of shapes and designs that affect resultantmechanical deformation in response to electrical input. For example,electroactive polymer actuators may be configured into sheets, rolls,and customized shapes to achieve a desired deflection. Stiffeningmembers and actuator frames may also be used to customize mechanicaloutput. Individual sheets may be stacked to form multiple layers.Several different electrode patterns may be made on the surface of asingle sheet in order to allow for more complex shape changes. Furtherdescription of actuation of electroactive polymer actuators and devicesis described in commonly owned U.S. Pat. No. 6,781,284, which isincorporated by reference herein in its entirety for all purposes.Further description of multiple electrode monolithic polymers isdescribed in commonly owned U.S. Pat. No. 6,664,718, which is alsoincorporated by reference herein for all purposes.

Collectively, electroactive polymer transducer allows external controlof the shape, deformation and size of meta-material 70. Once aparticular shape or position has been acquired using electroactivepolymer actuator 74, activation elements 72 may then be triggered tolock in a current position of meta-material 70.

FIG. 3A illustrates a cross-section of a meta-material 80 that providesthe ability to maintain a locked or maximally stiff state with little orno external activation applied. Meta-material 80 comprises deformablestructure 84, activation elements 86, spacer 88, and interlockingfeatures 90 (FIG. 3B).

Deformable structure 84 includes two compliant layers 84 a and 84 b andtwo opposing surfaces 85: a lower surface 85 a on a first compliantlayer 84 a and upper surface 85 b on a second compliant layer 84 b. Afirst subset of activation elements 86 a is disposed on lower surface 85a, while a second subset of activation elements 86 b is disposed onupper surface 85 b.

Spacer 88 comprises a high stiffness material (compared to the compliantlayers), couples to lower surface 85 a of layer 84 a, and couples toupper surface 85 b on layer 84 b. Spacer 88 may attach to each surfaceusing an adhesive, for example. Functionally, spacer 88 separates thetwo surfaces 85 and provides a cavity that allows activation elements 86to be located on inner surfaces of deformable structure 84. Spacer 88need not be completely rigid and may even include a flexible foam. Whensubsets of activation elements on each layer 84 are clamped, the upperand lower layers 84 and their connected activation elements 86 each forma high planar stiffness, and spacer 88 separates the high stiffnesslayers. This separation increases bending stiffness for meta-material80. Adjusting the geometry and length of spacer 88 enables the maximumbending stiffness to be adjusted substantially independently of planarstiffness. By controlling the stiffness of each set of activationelements, the bending stiffness can be controlled.

Meta-material 80 also employs a mechanical locking as an activationmechanism to maintain a particular position. FIG. 3B illustrates anexpanded portion 82 of meta-material 80 in accordance with a specificembodiment.

Each activation element 86 includes interlocking features 90 thatinteract with interlocking features 90 on an overlapping activationelement 86. The interaction is such that lateral and relative motionbetween two adjacent or overlapping activation elements 86 must overcomethe current stiffness of meta-material 80. In this case, an interlockingdepth 94 between mating features 90 on each activation element 86 mustbe vertically overcome before lateral motion between activation elements86 a and 86 b may occur.

In this case, interlocking features 90 include parallel bulges 92aligned in a planar direction orthogonal to displacement of theactivation elements 86. The present invention may use other geometriesto achieve mechanical locking. For example, the bulges may be squared attheir distal ends or include other geometries. In addition, individualfeatures may not be parallel and linear (into the page), and may includewaves or other planar configurations that provide forces in two planardimensions. This provides planar stiffness in multiple directions formeta-material 80 when the mechanical features 90 are locked.

Meta-material 80 thus uses interlocking features 90 to enhance lockingat a particular position. In a specific embodiment, this design includessufficiently stiff layers 84 such that meta-material 80 locks in adesired position with no electrical input or electrostatic clamping.This voltage-off locking reduces power consumption and allowsmeta-material 80 to have a more desirable fail-safe mode.

Alternatively, a small voltage difference (+/−V) is applied acrosselectrodes 96 to help keep meta-material 80 more securely locked. Tounlock meta-material 80, V is turned off and a second voltage, V2, maybe applied to a central elastomeric layer 97. This voltage, V2, isgreater in magnitude than V, and consequently attracts the free ends ofthe scales. This attraction breaks the contact between the overlappingscales and allows the outer elastic substrates to strain freely. V2 maybe oscillated to help break contact between overlapping scales.

In other embodiments that employ electrostatic clamping, one of thedielectric insulators of each clampable pair of electrode and insulatoractivation elements, such as the flexible scales of FIGS. 2A through 2J,is replaced by a thin sheet of a material that maintains a permanentelectrostatic charge. Such materials include vinyl and other polymersand are commercially available and used for a variety of applicationssuch as temporary and reusable signage. In this case the sheet clampswhen no voltage is applied to the complementary electrode and insulatorelement. The elements release or reduce clamping when a voltage isapplied to across the two electrodes that creates an electric field thatcancels that of the permanently charged sheets. Materials with permanentcharge are well known. With this embodiment it is possible to maintain amaximally rigid state or fixed position with substantially no electricalenergy input.

Meta-material 80 shows how a variety of features may be incorporatedinto a basic compliant layer meta-material design. Many other designenhancements are possible. For example, additional clamping layers mayfurther increase the strength of a meta-material for a given voltage.The basic structure of 80 could be stacked to produce a thicker materialthat is capable of changing its planar and bending stiffness. It may bedesirable to have activation elements for each of the layers arranged atdifferent angles, to further ensure stiffness uniformity of themeta-material.

Other interlocking or latching techniques may be used to maintain theposition for a meta-material. In one embodiment, mechanical latching isused to mechanically prevent to activation elements from separating. Forexample, one rigid activation element may include a male latch thatmates with a female latch on a second rigid activation element. Thecoupled mechanical latch then resists any external forces that attemptto move the activation elements relative to each other. Activation maythen include any suitable activation mechanism that moves the matinglatches on their respective activation elements from a latched state toan unlatched state.

Material selection for activation elements and deformable structure in ameta-material will significantly determine overall mechanical propertiesof the meta-material. In general, material selection for a deformablestructure, active elements and their components will vary with design ofthe meta-material. These materials may be chosen during design forsuitability in an application, as one of skill in the art willappreciate. Performance-related factors that affect the choice ofmaterials include the mechanical properties of strength, maximumelongation, stiffness, creep, tear resistance, tribology (friction andwear) and fatigue, surface roughness and electrical properties ofdielectric strength and resistance. In some applications, smoothsurfaces contacting each other may enable higher clamping forces bypermitting more intimate contact between the surfaces. In otherapplications, a rough surface may be desired to permit mechanicalinterlocking as described above. Other performance-related factors maybe relevant in certain applications and used to select componentmaterials. Additional factors that will influence the selection ofmaterials include temperature range of operation, moisture absorption,heat transfer, and electromagnetic signature. For example, materials maybe selected to provide a desired environmental tolerance, a desired heatconduction and/or electromagnetic signature. Composite or plastic rigidactivation elements with a weakly conductive coating can be used inplace of metal to vary heat conduction and electromagnetic signature.Materials may also be selected to provide a certain stiffness ordensity. Alternatively, materials may be selected for their fabricationcomplexity or cost.

For the ‘scale’ type meta-material designs described above, the rigidcomponent in each active element may comprise any material with astiffness greater than the stiffness of the deformable structure.Exemplary materials include rigid polymers, rigid plastic plates withsprayed conductive rubber, ceramic plates and papers (felts) or otherlayers made out of ceramic fibers, ceramic foams, metal foams,carbon-fiber composites, metals and rigid metal plates, such asaluminum, rigid plastic electrodes with thin laminated metal coatings,flexible electrodes including various types of conductive fabric, andcarbon laminates (which are used as a skin on aircraft, for example).Other materials may be used. The rigid components may also include anon-conductive and high stiffness material that is coated with aconductive coating.

Conductive coatings or layers may include any suitable electricalcarrier, such as a carbon impregnated polymers, metallic spray orsputtered coating, or any other suitable conductor available to one ofskill in the art. Because electrostatic forces typically operate at highvoltage and low current, the conductive layer need not be veryconductive. In fact, the natural conductivity of carbon fibers or othercarbon particles, even diminished by mixing them into a non-conductingpolymer matrix, is more than sufficient in many cases.

Materials used for the deformable structure will depend on a particulardesign. Thin compliant layers not relied on for electrical performancemay include any material having a suitable compliance. Exemplarymaterials include rubber, compliant polymers, silicone rubber, manyrubbers such as natural latex rubber, nitrile rubber, polymer foams(including the aforementioned zero-Poisson's and auxetic foams),patterned flexible but non-extendable polymers so that local areas canflex instead of stretch, arrays of metal or polymer springs, metalmeshes, and stretchable fabrics such as those made by including elasticfibers. For example, by making numerous slits in the polymer in adirection transverse to the direction of compliance. The slits may bearranged in a “brick-like” pattern such that adjacent rows of slits inthe transverse direction are offset so that the slits do not align inthe compliant direction. Another example is to form the polymer into ahoneycomb structure, such as that of structure 102 of FIG. 4A, where thepolymer is able to flex by bending at the vertices. Another example isto form the polymer sheet into a structure that deforms in theout-of-plane direction such as a sheet with transverse folds that allowit to accordion, patterned metal sheets (that function like the polymersAn elastomeric substrate that doubly provides electrical and mechanicalperformance can be selected from a variety of materials. Exemplarymaterials include, acrylic elastomer, silicone rubber, nitrile rubber,PolyVinlyleneDiFlouride (PVDF), and polyurethane elastomer, for example.Silicone rubber provides good environmental tolerance, large straincapability, and good insulation (for the compliant layer insulatedversions).

The scale-insulated embodiments may use a polymer coating with goodinsulation properties and environmental tolerance, such as siliconerubber or polyimide. If metallic scales or coatings are used, theinsulating layer may also include a non-conducting metal oxide (e.g.,anodized aluminum) that is formed directly on the metal.

In embodiments that use a conductive deformable structure and clampingresulting from scales being attracted to electrodes on the surface ofthe deformable structure, separate electrodes on the deformablestructure are not required.

In a specific embodiment, a meta-material measuring about 6 in² includesa silicone rubber compliant substrate layer with thin steel scales forrigid activation elements. An electrode on one side of the elastomerincluded a coating of carbon particles in a silicone binder. In thisspecific embodiment, the electrode is compliant.

Although meta-materials have so far been described with respect torelatively simple planar deformable structures, it is understood thatdeformable structures may include thin-layered complex shapes, bodieswith complex surfaces, and structures with multiple components. As notedabove, for example, individual layers may be stacked or formed intocylinders. In addition, meta-materials so far have been discussedprimarily with respect to electrostatic clamping and electroactivepolymers for activation mechanisms. A meta-material may use otheractivation mechanisms.

FIG. 4A illustrates a meta-material 100 that uses a magnetic activationmechanism in accordance with another embodiment of the presentinvention. Meta-material 100 comprises a honeycomb deformable structure102 and magnetic activation elements 104. FIG. 4B illustratesmeta-material 100 after activation of magnetic elements 104.Meta-material 100 differs from previous embodiments in that it includesmultiple rigid elements and a deformable structure that reconfigures inshape as opposed to stretching.

Deformable structure 102 comprises a honeycomb lattice with relativelyrigid members 105 and flexible joints 106. Each joint 106 pivotallycouples two or three rigid members 105. In the activation state shown inFIG. 4A, deformable structure 102 may be compressed and expanded, e.g.,like an accordion. Such structures can be made by a variety of knowntechniques including the extrusion of polymers, metals or polymer-fibercomposites, for example.

Activation elements 104 may be controlled to assume two states: a) afirst position or orientation (FIG. 4A) in which each activation element104 does not substantially interfere with deformation of honeycomblattice 102 or otherwise contribute to the stiffness (or anothermechanical property) of meta-material 100; and b) a second position ororientation (FIG. 4B) in which each activation element 104 increases thestiffness (or another mechanical property) of meta-material 100. In thesecond position, a stiff component of each activation element 106interfaces with rigid blocks 108 in each honeycomb of deformablestructure 102. This prevents vertical displacement or relative motionbetween vertically adjacent rigid blocks 108 above and below anactivation element 106. When multiple activation elements 106 have beenactivated, this cumulatively prevents movement of rigid members 105 andjoints 106 in the honeycomb lattice that neighbor the activated elements106. Activating all activation elements 106 in meta-material 100immobilizes the entire deformable structure 102 in the position shown inFIG. 4B.

In one embodiment, activation elements 104 respond to magnetic input andcan rotate about an axis into the page of FIG. 4A (e.g. they aresupported at either end by a pivot or in the center by a rotary joint).The orientation of a magnetic field (such as by electricallycontrollable coils external to meta-material 100 or embedded in certainlayers of the composite) determines the direction of the magneticactivation elements 104 and therefore the stiffness of meta-material100. Other designs may deliver a magnetic field across individualelements 104 to control activation into either position state. Apermanent magnet or array of magnets may be repositioned outside of themeta-material in order to control its properties.

Meta-material 100 provides another example where interaction betweendeformable structure 102 and magnetic activation elements 104 allows asmall change in energy applied to change the state of activationelements 104 to affect a large change in an overall property formeta-material 100. At the least, the change in state for activationelements 104 changes the overall stiffness for meta-material 100.

The magnetic input may also have each activation elements 104 assume anintermediate position between the two states. This may be advantageous,for example, to acquire an intermediate aggregate effect for themeta-material 100 such as a lesser stiffness in between the twoextremes. Intermediate stiffness states may also be achieved by rotatingthe active element of only some of the individual cells. For example, ifonly every other row is made rigid then the total rigidity is far lessthan if every element is aligned for maximum rigidity. Permanent magnetsmay also be used to make the structure function in reverse. In thiscase, the activation includes an electromagnet located in the vicinityof the permanent magnet that cancels the magnetic attachment of thepermanent magnet and causes normally magnetically clamped elements tocome unclamped and thus result in a change of connectivity and resultingstiffness.

In a specific embodiment, deformable structure 102 includes a plastic ormetal material. Other materials may be used. The flexible joints 106 mayinclude live hinges, thinned corners for plastic, interlocked pieceswith slits (common in the paper industry), or any other mechanism thatallows deformable structure 102 to change shape. Activation elements 104may include a ferromagenetic material, coil, or a permanent magnet, forexample. A component may also be included to house the ferromagneticmaterial, such as a plastic piece that provides structural strength.Element 104 may also include a paramagnetic material or other materialthat will preferentially align itself in a magnetic field gradient.

Although the deformable structure 100 has been described primarily withrespect to magnetic manipulation of activation elements 104, othertechniques may be used to control the activation elements. In anotherembodiment, activation elements 104 respond to electrical input tochange position. In this case, an actuator responds to an electricalsignal and mechanically controls position or orientation of eachactivation element 104. The activation elements may also beelectrostatically aligned using charge. In this case, each elementincludes an electret, a mechanism with permanent charge, or any otherpolar material that is responsive to an electric field. The electret mayrespond to the electric field by rotating, etc., in the same way thatthe previous embodiment responded to a magnetic field.

FIG. 5A illustrates a meta-material 120 in accordance with anotherembodiment of the present invention. Meta-material 120 includesdeformable structure 122 and activation elements 124.

Deformable structure 122 includes two compliant or deformable layers123. Each compliant layer 123 has a stiffness that permits planarexpansion and bending out of the plane when the activation elements 124are not activated.

Each activation element 124 includes four rigid struts 125 and two stiffcomponents 126. One end of each rigid strut 125 couples to either theupper or lower compliant layer 123. A joint 128 connects adjacentactivation elements 124 and permits pivotal motion between adjacentactivation elements 124. Joint 128 also permits pivoting between tworigid struts 125 and a stiff component 126 included in each activationelement 124.

Stiff components 126 may be controlled to achieve two states: a) a freestate in which left and right stiff components 126 are not coupled andfree to slide past each other; and b) an activated state in which theleft and right stiff components 126 are coupled together.

Cumulatively, meta-material 120 provides a truss-like structure that canbe selectively engaged or disengaged, such as by clamping stiffcomponents 126 together. When all stiff components 126 are free, alateral force may move the left and right stiff components 126 relativeto each other. This laterally squeezes or expands each activationelement 124. Mechanical linkage between rigid struts 125 at joint 128converts lateral motion into vertical motion for each activation element124. Deformable structure 122 may also bend in this free state, to alimited extent.

Activation elements 124 include a mechanism that permits each activationelement 124 to be locked in a current position or increase stiffness. Inone embodiment, left and right stiff components 126 are activated usingelectrostatic clamping. In one clamping design, one of the components126 includes an electrode and an insulating layer disposed thereon. Theother member acts as ground. In another clamping design, each compliant126 includes a layer of insulation and electrostatic clamping occursacross the insulation layer. Applying an electrostatic clamping voltageto the electrode fixes the stiff components 126 in a single activationelement 124 together. This prevents lateral motion of the activationelement 124, and prevents vertical motion due to the mechanical linkageat joint 128. This also prevents bending of deformable structure 122.

In another embodiment, stiff components 126 include an intrinsicallyadaptive or active material that can change stiffness of the linkage andthereby changing the stiffness of meta-material 120. For example, stiffcomponent 126 may include an electroactive polymer that responds toelectrical stimulus to change its stiffness, and that of meta-material120. Other intrinsically adaptive or active materials that may be usedfor activation element 124 include piezoelectric benders with surfacefeatures similar to FIG. 3B that can form an interlocked pair whenactivated, thermally-controlled or shape memory alloy benders, and rigidelements where at least one has an electromagnet, for example.

In a specific embodiment, deformable structure 122 includes anycompliant layer material, such as a rubber or elastomer or patternedpolymer or metal. Rigid struts 125 may include a metal, a plastic, orany other rigid material. Stiff components 126 may include any materialsused above with respect to the scale embodiments, such as a metal with anon-conductive coating (e.g., a non-conductive anodized coating),polymers with a metal sputtered on one side, carbon particles in abinder with a polyimide insulator, or any conductive material with aninsulator.

Like many designs described so far, the truss meta-material 120 can be3D or 2.5D. By 2.5D, it is meant that the structure has nodifferentiating features of interest in the third dimension; it may beof uniform size, such as made by extruding the 2D pattern of the figurein a third orthogonal direction. We also note that the basic structureof FIG. 5A can be stacked to form a thicker material.

FIG. 5B illustrates the activation element 124 of FIG. 5A included in adifferent deformable structure 142 for a meta-material 140 in accordancewith a specific embodiment of the present invention.

In this case, deformable structure 142 comprises the arrangement of allactivation elements 124 in a single integrated structure. Morespecifically, deformable structure 142 includes multiple rows 144 ofactivation elements 124, where the top of elements 124 in one row attachto the bottom of elements 124 in the above row. In addition, stiffcomponents 146 a are included in between rows at the point of attachmentof two elements 124. Movement of any activation element 124 affects itsneighbors when the activation elements 124 are in a free state.

FIG. 5C shows meta-material 140 after activation of all elements 124,which statically fixes deformable structure 142 and meta-material 140 inits current position. The meta-material 140 can be planar or extrudedout of the page.

Meta-materials may also provide tunable bending stiffness control. Inone embodiment, a meta-material provides bending stiffness control byproviding the ability to clamp on multiple surfaces, such as both theupper and lower surfaces of a compliant layer.

As noted, meta-materials may control shape change. Active materials mayalso be incorporated into a deformable or reconfigurable structure inorder to provide energy for the shape change.

In one embodiment, a meta-material capable of such self-actuated shapechange can use a snap-through or bistable mechanism in order to changebetween one shape to another (in either direction). FIG. 7C illustratesa “snap-through” bistable meta-material 340 in accordance with oneembodiment of the present invention. Meta-material 340 includesactuation elements 342 and hexagonal structural elements 344.

Actuation elements 342 laterally expand upon application of electricalstimulation. In a preferred embodiment, actuation elements 342 includeplanar electroactive polymer actuators, such as dielectric elastomers.Further description of actuation of electroactive polymer actuators anddevices is described in commonly owned U.S. Pat. No. 6,781,284, which isincorporated by reference herein in its entirety for all purposes.

Actuation elements 342 are embedded in individual hexagonal structuralelements 344, or ‘cells’, and span the width of each cell, as shown inFIG. 7C. When the electroactive polymer actuators are actuated, theresulting change in width of each hexagonal cell 344 snaps the cellsinto an “hourglass” shape, thus causing a large overall shape in theoverall structure 340 as shown in FIG. 7D. Intermediate deformations arealso possible.

FIG. 7E demonstrates how such a meta-material can be manufactured usinga simple lay-up process. The actuation elements 342 can be manufacturedin the form of sheet structures 350, as shown. These sheets containregions of individually addressable actuation elements on a monolithicsubstrate. Further description of multiple electrode monolithicelectroactive polymer actuators is described in commonly owned U.S. Pat.No. 6,664,718, which is also incorporated by reference herein for allpurposes. These active layers are alternately layered with thehalf-hexagon structures 352 so that when attached in a stack they form across section as shown in FIG. 7C.

A second configuration for bistable meta-material 340 includes a stackof planar “bow” actuators 360 (FIG. 7F) that each comprise anelectroactive polymer 362 that spans and attaches to the inside of aflexible frame 364 (attaches about the perimeter of the polymer 362).Flexible frame 364 acts as a hexagonal linkage with joints at eachcorner. Further description of bow actuators is described in commonlyowned U.S. Pat. No. 6,781,284 B1, which is also incorporated byreference herein for all purposes. When the bow actuator 360 isactuated, the overall area change is coupled to a change in the width ofthe cell. By alternately depositing the hexagonal linkage structure andplanar actuators, a stacked honeycomb structure comprising several bowactuator structures may be fabricated. Such a stack of bow actuators 360is shown in FIG. 7C.

Many bow actuators 360 can be grouped into a honeycomb structure andstacked in parallel as shown in FIG. 7G. Similar to the example shown inFIG. 7E, honeycomb electrodes and activation elements 374 arealternately layered as electrodes on sheets 370 of electroactivepolymer. The electroactive polymer sheets 370 contain individuallyaddressable activation elements 374 on a monolithic substrate.

Each individual cell of any of these embodiments may be individuallyaddressable. This permits intermediate shape changes by only actuating asubset of the cells. In some designs, in order to achieve the ability tocontrol the shape of sections of the material or the material as awhole, it the entire meta-material is segmented into distinct blocks sothat there is not mechanical interaction between the blocks. Forexample, the honeycomb structures of the designs above may be segmentedso that the deforming honeycomb structures do not all interact inunison. By controlling the shape of individual cells of the entiremeta-material structure, it is possible to achieve an arbitrarydesirable shape of the entire structure.

The shape of each cell affects the stiffness and damping properties ofthe cell in a particular direction. For example, a cell with walls thatare nearly aligned in one direction will be stiffer in that directionthan a cell with walls that are at large angles relative to thatdirection.

FIGS. 6A-6C illustrates a layered composite meta-material 180 inaccordance with a specific embodiment of the present invention.Meta-material 180 permits bending stiffness control as well as thecontrol of the shape of a flat surface.

Meta-material 180 includes multiple flexible layers 182 and activationlayers 184. Each activation layer 184 is sandwiched between two flexiblelayers 182. In general, each flexible layer 182 includes a combinedthickness and elastic modulus such that the layer may bend but islargely non-extendable. Activation layer 184 includes two states: a) afirst state in which the activation layer 184 mechanically couples toits two neighboring flexible layers 182, and b) a detached state inwhich the activation layer 184 does not mechanically couple the twoneighboring layers allowing shear between these two flexible layers.Activation layer 184 may then include any material that permits externalcontrol to couple and de-couple each activation layer 184 to its twoneighboring flexible layers 182.

In a specific embodiment, flexible layers 182 include a thin conductivesheet (such as copper, aluminum or another metal), while activationlayers 184 include a flexible dielectric (such as nitrile rubber). Inthis case, meta-material 180 uses two neighboring flexible layers 182 aselectrodes to apply an electrostatic clamping voltage to the dielectricactivation layer 184 disposed therebetween. This couples the activationlayer 184 to its two neighboring flexible layers 182. Each layer 184 inmeta-material 180 may be similarly activated. The entire stack of layersmay also be activated simultaneously.

Before engaging activation layers 184, flexible layers 182 permitbending of meta-material 180 in response to an external vertical force186, as illustrated in FIG. 6C. A single sheet (in cross section) offlexible layer 182 provides a bending stiffness for meta-material 180relative to E, the elastic modulus of the material used in layer 182.Multiple de-activated layers 182 layered will together produce a bendingstiffness for meta-material 180 relative to N×E, where N is the numberof flexible layers 182. As shown in FIG. 6C, this still provides arelatively flexible bending beam. Force 186 may instead be a distributedforce over the length of the beam or force combined with a torque.Several forces could introduce compound bending into the beam.

When an electrostatic clamping voltage is applied onto every activationlayer 184, the layers 182 and 184 clamp together, which increases thebending rigidity of meta-material 180. More specifically, afteractivation, each activation layer 184 couples to both adjacent above andbelow flexible layers 182. This increases the aggregate bendingstiffness of meta-material 180 since bending of meta-material 180 nowrequires shear of each connected layer 182 and 184. In a specificembodiment, the bending rigidity of meta-material 180 increases by afactor of about N³. This allows meta-material 180 to be flexible whende-activated, but stiff when activated. In some cases, the change inbending stiffness ratio from activated to de-activated may be N³:N, orN²:1. Any number of layers 182 and 184 may be used.

Component materials for meta-material 180 may be selected based on theirmaterial properties to produce a desired dynamic result. For example,steel may be used in flexible layers 182 to increase bending stiffness.Other suitable materials include flexible polymers with electrodespatterned on their surfaces, and carbon-fiber composite materials, forexample.

In one embodiment, flexible layers 182 are coupled or otherwise attachedsuch that they form a single structure for meta-material 180. Forexample, layers 182 may each attach to a plate on one end (or both). Inanother embodiment, meta-material 180 is a free-form structure, asshown. This permits the meta-material 180 to be bent and twisted asdesired. For example, meta-material 180 may be externally manipulated(bent, twisted, etc.) using an actuator, or manually. At any particularshape, activation using electrostatic clamping voltages will lock thecurrent shape of meta-material 180.

In a specific embodiment of the design shown in FIGS. 6A through 6C, theactivation layers 184 include 0.004″ thick nitrile rubber (for example,nitrile rubber used in Safeskin brand nitrile gloves made byKimberly-Clark Corporation, Roswell, Ga. 30076 USA). The flexible layersinclude 0.002″ thick brass sheets. 10 centistoke silicone oil can alsobe used to help prevent separation of the layers, though depending onthe application and external loading this may not be necessary. Clampingvoltage may range from about 1000 to about 1500 V DC.

Other activation mechanisms and systems may be used for meta-material180. In one embodiment, each flexible layer 184 includes a compliantpolymer or elastomer. Activation layer 184 may achieve a change inattachment by clamping, a shape change in a viscoelastic material (e.g.,using an active material such as an electroactive polymer), or bysqueezing the layers 184 together. In all these instances, there will beincreased shear forces in the activation layer 184 when the compositemeta-material bends. In another embodiment, the activation layerincludes a layer that swells such that, before activation, theactivation layer 184 only couples to one flexible layer 182. In thiscase, each activation layer 184 does not experience a large amount ofshear deformation before activation. After activation, the activationlayer 184 couples to both adjacent flexible layers 182, which nowinduces shear stresses in the activation layer 184 when the compositemeta-material bends. Materials such as polymer gels, thermally expansivematerials could be incorporated into the activation layer 184 to providethis functionality. Activation layer 184 could also incorporate activematerials such as electroactive polymers or piezoelectric ceramics thatare attached to mechanisms that allow for large out-of-planedeformation. For example, Expansion of electroactive polymer sheetscould squeeze a thin layer of flexible polymer that buckles and presseson neighboring layers 182. Activation layers could also be composed ofmagnetorheological or electrorheological fluids. These fluids changeform a low-shear stress state to a much higher shear-stress state uponthe application of a magnetic and electric field, respectively.

Meta-materials 140 and 180, like many designs described herein, aremodular. This allows the basic pattern to be repeated in both the planardirection or out-of-plane direction (stacking) to produce meta-materialswith any suitable size, length, or shape.

Some meta-materials also employ shape changes to affect mechanicalproperty changes. FIG. 7A illustrates a beam 160 that changes shape inaccordance with a specific embodiment of the present invention. Beam 160includes a compliant layer 162 and flexible but non-extendable material164 disposed on the bottom surface of compliant layer 162.

In a specific embodiment, compliant layer 162 includes an electroactivepolymer. An electrode 166 is disposed on the top and bottom surfaces ofthe electroactive polymer. Actuation of the electroactive polymer usingelectrodes 166 causes the compliant electroactive polymer to arch asshown in FIG. 7B. Alternatively, meta-material 160 may not include anelectroactive polymer and relies on external forces (such aselectrostatic attraction to a nearby flat surface) to produce a desiredshape change.

Triggering activation of beam 160 (either by applying a voltage acrossan electroactive polymer or removal of electrostatic attractive forcesthat cause the beam to conform to a flat surface) causes it to attain amore rigid position, such as the position shown in FIG. 7B. Thisincreases stiffness of beam 160 in response to loads both along andperpendicular to the bending axis of the beam. For example, beam 160will deflect less in response to a downward force applied at its distalend.

The beam of FIG. 7, while effective in changing properties is a simpleexample of how low-energy shape change can lead to a great change in oneor more mechanical properties. In order to form a meta-material, thisbasic beam structure may be incorporated as a building block element ofother structures. For example, an array of such elements standing on endmay be sandwiched between two rigid plates. The resulting layeredstructure would be much stiffer when the elements were activated to astate shown in FIG. 7B. In another embodiment, the beams may be attachedalong one edge to a flexible surface. This surface can bend when thebeam is in the unlocked state of FIG. 7A but not when the beam is in thelocked state of FIG. 7B.

Meta-materials formed from beam 160 thus demonstrate another aspect ofthe present invention: using a shape change to vary a mechanicalproperty and locking the meta-material at the new shape. In this case,the change in shape increases vertical stiffness of the bending beam.

While meta-materials formed from beam 160 employ a simple structure andsimple shape change that is well suited for illustrative purposes, thepresent invention is not limited to such simple design and shape changesand may include more complex deformable structures before and afteractivation.

Shape change (whether it be the desired change in shape of themeta-material or the change in shape of an element within themeta-material) need not result only from forces or actions createdinternal to the meta-material. For example, one application belowdescribes the use of meta-materials for shape changing wings on anairplane. In this case, the meta-material is de-activated (put into thelow-stiffness state), moved using a suitable actuator (or the wind), andthen activated at some desired shape, position or configuration. In somecases, when the wind is turbulent, de-activating the material only whenthe resulting wind pressure acts in a desired direction produces aseemingly self-actuating system.

Any suitable actuator may be used to move the object and deform orreshape the meta-material. Motors, pneumatic cylinders, and solenoidsare suitable for use in many systems. In one embodiment, anelectroactive polymer transducer is used to deflect a meta-materialwhile the meta-material is in a de-activated state. Electroactivepolymers are a class of compliant polymers whose electrical statechanges with deformation. Actuators including an electroactive polymermay come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes and may be tailored to aspecific application or design. Exemplary electroactive polymers mayinclude electrostrictive polymers, dielectric elastomers (a.k.a.electroelastomers), conducting polymers, IPMC, gels, etc. Furtherdescription of electroactive polymers suitable for use with the presentinvention is described in commonly owned U.S. Pat. No. 6,628,040, whichis incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.Other suitable actuators may include the active or intrinsicallyvariable materials described above. Electrostatic or electromagneticforces, similar to those that may be used for clamping, may also be usedto provide actuation for shape control. For example, two overlappinglayers with bands of electrodes or electromagnetic regions can be madeto slide relative to one another by sequentially alternating the voltageof the bands in much the same way that a linear motor moves the sliderrelative to the stator. Such linear motors based on flat sheets thatslide relative to one another are known to one of skill in the art.These motorized layers can be attached to the deformable structure of ameta-material or take its place completely.

Properties and Performance

A meta-material permits dynamic control of one or more mechanicalproperties. Controllable mechanical properties include stiffness,damping, elastic or plastic strength, yield strength, tensile orcompression strength, shear strength, elastic modulus, toughness, tearresistance, maximum elongation, strain to failure, energy absorbed untilfailure, Poisson's ratio, creep, fatigue, tribology, shear modulus,resilience, acoustic transmissivity, damping, mechanical loss factor,hardness, impact resistance, shock resistance, and shape.

As described so far, meta-materials described herein are well suited forstiffness control. For activation elements that employ electrostaticclamping, as long as static clamping and frictional forces between theactivation elements are larger than an external force trying to pullthem apart, the clamping is effective (i.e., no slippage occurs). Thisclamping causes the stiffness of the meta-material to be approximatelyequal to the stiffness of the rigid component material. Some compliancemay be introduced by shear deformation of a compliant layer (ifincluded), but this compliance is small when a thin elastomer layer isused. Scale-insulated designs do not have this compliance issue. In somecases, the insulation in this type of design can in fact be stiffer thanthe core scale material.

Rigid activation elements on a compliant planar structure and havingactivation control in two dimensions permit controllable stiffness inboth in-plane directions. This allows dynamic directional control ofplanar stiffness, i.e., stiff in one direction while compliant inanother direction, and then a change to the opposite stiffnesses in eachdirection. Bending and planar stiffness may also be independently variedfor some meta-material designs, e.g., by controlling the relativestiffness on opposite sides of a compliant layer.

The present invention also permits variable and dynamic control ofstiffness of a meta-material between minimum and maximum extremes duringusage. In one embodiment, tunable (dynamic and variable) stiffness isachieved by selectively activating some but not all activation elementsto effectively provide a variable stiffness. Alternately, dampingcontrol of the structure may be achieved when a lower voltage is usedfor electrostatic clamping embodiments so that the activation elementscan slide under load but still resist an applied force by a controlledamount. In some embodiments, such as those that use magnetorheologicalor electrorheological fluids, changing the degree of activation byvarying the voltage can also directly affect stiffness change.

Changes in stiffness provided by a meta-material of the presentinvention can be quite dramatic. For example, a compliant layer with anelastomer substrate such as silicone (with an elastic modulus of about 1MPa) and scales of 6061-T6 aluminum (with an elastic modulus of 70 GPa)may theoretically change in stiffness by a factor of 70,000. In oneembodiment, a meta-material is capable of changing stiffness by factorof greater than 100 times its original stiffness. This is useful invibration or noise control where matching (or avoiding) the resonance ofa frequency change by a factor of 10 requires a change in stiffness by afactor of 100. Materials for morphing structures will also benefit froma large change from rigid to compliant, and back to rigid. In a specificembodiment, a meta-material is capable of changing stiffness by factorof greater than 1000 times its original stiffness. An arbitrarystiffness can be selected between two extremes (e.g., by controlling thenumber of elements that are activated across the surface of anelectrostatically clamped meta-material). In another embodiment, beforeand after stiffnesses are used to characterize a meta-material. Ameta-material including a stiffness before activation that is less thanabout 1 MPa and a stiffness after activation greater than about 1000 MPais suitable in many applications. In a specific embodiment, ameta-material includes a stiffness before activation that is less thanabout 10 MPa and a stiffness after activation that is greater than about100 MPa. In some cases, a meta-material may start at about 100 MPa andconvert to about 10 GPa after activation.

While the present invention so far has been described primarily withrespect to dynamically varying stiffness in a meta-material, the presentinvention is not limited to controlling this specific mechanicalproperty.

Meta-materials also provide active and dynamic damping control. We havenoted that damping provided by a meta-material including electrostaticclamping may be actively controlled by intentionally allowing slippageof activation elements. Thus, the electrostatic clamping voltage may bereduced to an amount that allows sliding of the activation elements. Inother words, an electrostatic clamp is applied that is not strong enoughto withstand an external force being damped. This partial clampingapproach allows for controlling the effective damping of a structureincluding the meta-material. Controlled damping may be achieved usingany of the electrostatic clamping meta-materials described above. Forexample, partial clamping of stiff components 126 in meta-material 120(FIG. 5A) allows sliding that produces an amount of damping related tothe degree of clamping.

Controlling the amount of shear deformation of one or more viscoelasticlayers in a meta-material also permits damping control. To increase thedamping of a bending beam, one may trap a layer of viscoelastic materialbetween flexible layers 182 of meta-material 180 (FIGS. 6A-6B) so thatthe shear forces on this layer are greatly increased and consequentlythis layer adds a significant amount of damping to the overallstructure.

Meta-materials may provide independently controllable stiffness anddamping. For example, a composite may include separate layers to controlstiffness and layers to control damping. As noted above, if activationresults in a binary change in stiffness or damping, then activating asubset of the total number of activation elements may provide fractionalcontrol.

Meta-materials may also be designed to permit variable toughness (energyabsorbed before failure) or resilience (energy absorbed before plasticdeformation). Some embodiments of the present including aluminum mayprovide greater toughness or resilience than aluminum itself. Forexample, when a meta-material fails (releases electrostatic clamping) intensile load, the failure is not catastrophic. The meta-material may beconfigured to re-clamp at a slightly extended length and continue tofunction at the clamping stiffness. By repeatedly allowing the materialto release and re-clamp, the meta-material dissipates a large amount ofenergy. Thus, a meta-material may enhance not only the stiffness of adevice, but also its resilience. Even of the material repeatedly fails,once the load is removed and the material is deactivated, it canelastically return to its original shape without damage.

In one embodiment, a meta-material is configured in an object to supportstructural loads. This may reduce overall mass of an object by reducingthe mass of other structures used to support structural loads. Dependingon the object and design, the meta-material can support a bending loadby providing tensile and compressive in-plane stresses and torque,carrying shear flow as a part of a closed torque box, etc.

External Control

Implementation of a meta-material may employ external control of sometype. This may include any hardware needed for communication with theactivation elements and any circuitry or logic for implementing control.

For electrostatic clamping embodiments, at the very least, a minimumamount of control hardware (wires, etc.) and circuitry is needed toprovide remove electrostatic clamping voltages to and from theactivation elements. In one embodiment, a meta-material includesseparate control for each activation element. In another embodiment,subsets of activation elements are commonly addressed and controlled(e.g. using a common electrode). Logic of varying goals and complexitymay also be used to control the activation elements and regulate themechanical property of interest.

In general, the energy required to engage a set of activation elementsto change the meta-material and mechanical property (“energy ofactivation”) can be small relative to the resulting energy performanceof the meta-material. In many cases, elastic and damping energy is bornby the aggregate meta-material. For example, once an activationmechanism engages a rigid activation element, it is the energy ofdeformation of a meta-material or structure that determines themechanical property and not the energy of activation. Control can thusbe made and maintained with little energy expenditure, e.g., inputelectrical energy. Since activation is only required to make small orlow-force motions or provide clamping, which requires little energy inmany cases but produces dramatic mechanical properties, the presentinvention also then provides energy efficient mechanisms to affect largechanges in a mechanical property.

The electrical power needed to hold electrostatic clamping embodimentsis relatively minimal, since the effect is electric-field-based and doesnot require significant amounts of current to flow. Power consumptionfor electrostatic clamping depends on the insulation thickness, theclamping pressure, and the insulation resistivity. For example, for a 1m² surface that is clamped with 10% overlap and has an insulationthickness of 10 μm, resistivity of 10¹³ ohm-m (silicone, silicondioxide, or other insulators, for example), and a field of 300 V/μm(sufficient for about 1 MPa clamping pressure with a dielectric constantof 2.7), the power required to hold full load is only 4 mW. This exampleis only illustrative; other, better insulators with thinner coatings mayreduce power consumption. Also, alternative designs that use mechanicalinterlocks can use little or no voltage in the clamped state (see FIG.3B). From a basic perspective, the electrostatic clamping activationelements act as a capacitor, so some finite amount of energy may beneeded to apply the clamping voltage. In one embodiment the energyapplied to the meta-material is recovered when the material isdeactivated. Embodiments that use electrostatic clamping are a highlyreactive (capacitive) electrical load. Electrical circuits that canrecover energy from a capacitive load are known to those skilled in theart. In one embodiment, electrostatic clamping relies on high voltage.In a specific embodiment, the clamping voltage is above about 1 kV.Other voltages may be used, as appropriate. Depending on the materialsused, electrostatically clamped embodiments employ low-current,high-voltage operation (often with low leakage current) that minimizesthe mass of the power supply, electrical wiring, and connectors. Thisprovides many energy efficient meta-materials.

Several factors will influence an available electrostatic clampingforce, as well as the required power. These parameters include a) theinsulating or dielectric material and its thickness; b) the activationelement material, compliance; and geometry, and c) the drive circuit (ACor DC excitation). Several suitable insulating and dielectric materialsinclude polyimide and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). In addition, moreconductive materials such as nitrile rubber and thermoplasticpolyurethane may also be suitable for some applications. Surfaceroughness and scale compliance may also increase the availableelectrostatic clamping force.

The present invention may use AC or DC excitation. Depending on thematerials being used and electrical energy supply, the force ofelectrostatic clamping driven by a DC signal (or any other non-reversingvoltage) may reduce over time due to parasitic charging of thesurroundings and charge migration within a dielectric. Use of a bipolar(i.e. going positive and negative) AC signal instead of a DC signal mayeliminate dielectric charging in these instances. With an AC signal, theclamping force goes briefly to zero each time the voltage changespolarity. In one embodiment, a meta-material includes a set ofmechanically redundant activation elements. By using mechanicallyredundant activation elements, a meta-material may eliminate slippagewhen the AC signal goes through the zero-voltage point of some subset ofthe activation elements. In another specific embodiment, a meta-materialincludes redundant clamping activation elements that are arranged inparallel. If some of the redundant activation elements are driven with asignal that is 90 degrees out of phase with the other AC signal, then atleast some of the activation elements are always clamped. In anotherembodiment, the electronic speed of switching polarities may be so fastthat the mechanical system doesn't have time to slip (i.e. the inertiaprevents any significant motion before the field changes polarity andre-clamps). In a specific embodiment, an excitation frequency aboveabout 1 Hz is used. Other AC frequencies may be used.

In addition, the present invention also permits variable control of amechanical property between its minimum and maximum extremes. Forexample, many electrostatic clamping embodiments permit clampingvoltages between the minimum and maximum extremes (e.g., to permitdamping). The control electronics may then include conditioningelectronics to facilitate such control and logic to implement variablecontrol. Variable or binary control may include open loop control,closed loop control with active sensing, etc.

In one aspect, this invention relates to a method for changing amechanical property of a meta-material. FIG. 12 illustrates a processflow 300 for altering a mechanical property in a meta-material inaccordance with one embodiment of the present invention. Themeta-material includes a deformable structure and a set of activationelements coupled to the deformable structure.

Process flow 300 begins by activating one or more activation elementsfrom a first state to a second state (302). Activation may includeapplying an electrostatic clamping voltage to electrostatic clampingactivation elements. A magnetic field may be altered to activate one ormore magnetic-based activation elements. In general, activation willemploy any suitable steps as determined by the activation mechanism usedin meta-material.

The first or second state may include a fully ‘on’ or ‘off’ state, orsome other partial state therebetween. Many meta-materials offer tunablemechanical property changes based on varying input. For example, voltageapplied to an activation element may be regulated at stepwise inputlevels via a feedback control loop to achieve a desired level fordamping or toughness. Alternatively, the position of an activationelement may be controlled via a magnetic field to permit a number ofpositions between two position extremes that affect stiffness ordamping.

The mechanical property changes in response to acquisition of the secondstate by the one or more activation elements (304). In one embodimentwhere the mechanical change is a stiffness change, the activationelements include a stiffness or modulus of elasticity greater than thatof the deformable structure. In this case, multiple rigid activationelements may link together to increase aggregate stiffness of themeta-material. In one embodiment, the activation element is engaged tochange a meso-scale geometry or connectivity of the deformable structureand thereby change the viscoelastic properties of the meta-materialcomposite. Stiffness changes are well suited for noise, vibration andshock suppression and control. For example, activation elements may betriggered such that an object that includes the meta-material or avoidsa resonance frequency witnessed by the object without the stiffnesschange. Alternatively, the meta-material may be used in an object as adynamic vibration absorber and the stiffness change causes themeta-material to match a resonance frequency witnessed by the object andabsorb energy at the resonance frequency.

Process flow 300 then determines if another change is desired (306). Inelectrostatic clamping applications where a mechanical property istunable for example, the activation elements may be partially activatedusing a first voltage between the permissible minimum and maximumvoltages. The voltage—and mechanical property (e.g., damping,stiffness)—may then be increased or decreased as desired.

While the present invention has primarily been described with respect tochanging a mechanical property of the meta-material, it is understoodthat the present invention may also be used to control a mechanicalproperty of a device, object or structure that includes a meta-material.Thus, process flow 300 may also be applied to control a mechanicalproperty for a device, object or structure by controlling one or moreactive elements in the meta-material.

In another embodiment, the present invention relates to a method forchanging shape of a meta-material or an object. FIG. 13 illustrates aprocess flow 320 for changing shape of a meta-material in accordancewith another embodiment of the present invention.

Process flow 320 begins by at least partially de-activating one or moreactivation elements. De-activation in the sense may include fullde-activation, or partial de-activation to some intermediate statebetween on/off extremes for the activation element. The elements may bede-activated to reduce stiffness, damping, or some other mechanicalproperty of the meta-material or object, or otherwise changeconnectivity or shape of the meta-material. At the least, the activationelements will be de-activated such that the meta-material is responsiveand compliant to an external force that moves the deformable structure.

Shape for the meta-material or object is then changed (324). This mayinclude applying a force to the deformable structure to change shape ofthe meta-material. In one embodiment, environmental forces are used tochange shape of the device. For example, an endoscope or catheterincluding a meta-material may be passively guided by the channels inwhich it navigates. When it is desired to steer the endoscope in acertain direction, certain regions of the meta-material are activated sothat the device can only bend in the desired direction. This allows anenvironment to do work by controlling stiffness by unlocking(de-activating the meta-material to a point where it is compliant) andlocking (activating the meta-material to a point where it is stiffrelative to input forces) the meta-material at desirable times. Thisalso permits using turbulence to move a fin in an air stream. In anotherembodiment, manual forces are used to change shape for a meta-material,as we described above.

One or more of the active elements are then activated (326). Theactivation may increase stiffness or otherwise change connectivity orshape of the meta-material. In addition, activation may stop at someintermediate position for the mechanical property less than the maximummechanical property permitted for the meta-material.

Another embodiment of the invention relates to a method of absorbingenergy. The method comprises changing one or more mechanical propertiesof the meta-material according to the energy absorption needs of anapplication. Once the mechanical properties have been set, a force isapplied to the meta-material such that the deformable structure deforms.In ballistics and other impact applications, combining both highstiffness of the activation elements and high ductility of the compliantsubstrate may increase toughness of a meta-material. Thus, meta-materialstiffness may be raised by activation. The deformable structure is thenstretched at the higher stiffness. Alternatively, the meta-material maybe used to change stiffness and/or damping to deliberately excite anobject used as a tuned mass-damper or energy absorber in a vibrationsapplication. The present invention also allows the mechanical propertiesof a meta-material or structure to be tuned for vibration or noiseisolation when the frequency spectra of the disturbance input varies.Variations in stiffness over a single cycle of oscillatory motion(vibration) can also be used to damp such vibrations.

Applications

The ability to actively control or modulate mechanical properties suchas the elastic and viscoelastic properties of a material or structure isuseful in many applications. Indeed, the present invention represents abreakthrough technology because a meta-material fundamentally changesthe paradigm of materials having a fixed set of mechanical propertiespost-production. In most engineering fields, an advance in materialstechnology has enabled new applications.

One example is an athletic or medical brace that can switched from softand flexible to hard and stiff. Another example is footwear wherespringiness vs. absorption can be controlled. The ability to vary fromflexible or stretchable to relatively rigid may also be incorporatedinto fabrics to be used in clothing or footwear with adjustable fit. Thefabrics could also be incorporated into tents, reflectors, aircraft orwatercraft skins where it is desirable to control the fit or complianceof the skin. Such skins with controllable mechanical properties may beused in morphing structures such as morphing aircraft wings. Inaddition, the ability to modulate elastic and viscoelastic properties isuseful vibration control systems such as for automobiles to vary theresponse based on different driving conditions.

The development of air and space vehicles has been tied to materialsdevelopments. From the first wood and fabric materials to high speed,high-strength metal alloys and to modern-day composites, the developmentof new materials has enabled improvements in the performance of militaryand commercial aircraft. Twentieth century composites, with theirdirectional stiffness and strength properties, provided a degree offreedom to aircraft designers over the last century—specifically, tailorability. Using composites, a designer could design aircraft structureswith directionally variable properties to efficiently carry loads thatare not directionally uniform. These properties have led to 10-20%weight savings in aircraft structures and have enabled the design ofaircraft such as the forward swept X-29.

The present invention provides another degree of freedom: dynamicmaterial performance. Just as composite materials whose mechanical(e.g., stiffness and damping) properties can be selected by designallowed a revolution in aerodynamic structures, a new generation ofmaterials whose material properties can be actively controlled enable anew generation of aerospace structures.

Aircraft, such as unmanned air vehicles (UAVs), are playing anincreasingly important role in aerospace applications. Currently,aircraft are designed for optimal flight in one particular flightregime. To minimize fuel consumption, low-speed surveillance aircrafthave long narrow wings with no sweep. In contrast, high-speed attackaircraft (and highly maneuverable combat aircraft) include shorter-span,long chord wings with a large amount of sweep to reduce drag andincrease aerodynamic efficiency. While some current aircraft are capableof minor variation in geometry, such as controlling the angle of wingsweep, the ability to change or “morph” between two very differentplatforms and wing shapes has not been achieved.

The present invention enables an aerodynamically efficient aerialvehicle capable of shape change. In one embodiment, an aircraftincluding a morphing wing with a meta-material component is capable ofundergoing large deformations that are used for significant shapechange, while supporting aerodynamic and structural loads. For example,one meta-material component may be an aircraft skin includingelectrostatically clamped rigid scales on a compliant substrate. Theaircraft skin can change from rigid (by clamping the activationelements) to compliant (by releasing one or more activation elements)when desired. If a component or meta-material skin is always stiff (tomeet aeromechanical load requirements), then shape change will useexcessive energy and the morphing actuators will be large and heavy.Conversely, if the skin is always compliant it will not be able toresist mechanical loads. These conflicting requirements are accomplishedwith a meta-material component or skin whose stiffness can becontrollably changed.

It may also be desirable to morph a structure in a partially clampedmodes when it is useful to resist loads. This partial clamping approachallows for controlling the effective stiffness and damping of thestructure. Controlling damping could suppress flutter or otherundesirable motions (particularly during morphing) in an aerodynamicenvironment. For aircraft applications, the meta-material component orskin is also suitably tough and lightweight (particularly of use insmaller unmanned air vehicles). In one embodiment, the skin provides therequisite shear stiffness and bending stiffness for anticipated flightmaneuvers when the activation elements are locked, and permits morphingduring flight such as level flight.

A meta-material skin may be flexibly used in different parts of anaircraft. For example, a meta-material skin may be applied on a wingsurface of the aircraft to change the aerodynamic characteristics andperformance of the wing. Alternatively, a vertical tail may include ameta-material whose aerodynamic profile and/or size may change. In oneembodiment, a morphing wing provided by the present invention includes asmooth surface to achieve good aerodynamic efficiency. Thus, the skinmay undergo large deformations for radical shape change, whilesupporting aerodynamic loads, and maintain a smooth surface. In manydesigns, the meta-material skin also supports structural loads, therebyreducing the mass of the aircraft.

Other applications that could benefit from morphing include deployableor reconfigurable space-based mirrors and arrays. The meta-materials mayalso be used in an automobile body that can change shape. For example,an automobile panel may change to a more aerodynamic shape.

The present invention is also well suited for application in noise,vibration and shock suppression and control. Many applications demandlightweight and compact means of damping noise and vibrationsserviceable by the present invention. In some cases, one would like tomaximize damping in a structure. In more complicated structures, it issometimes desirable to change both stiffness and damping to avoidexciting certain resonant modes or deliberately excite others (such asfor a tuned mass-damper). If the frequency spectra of the disturbanceinput varies then vibration or noise isolation can be achieved by tuningthe properties of the meta-material or structure itself.

Such a meta-material finds use as a surface panel in helicopter, tank orother land vehicle, for example. At certain frequencies, determined bythe blade speed in the helicopter or the terrain in a tank, conventionalpanels can vibrate excessively and radiate significant noise (similar tothe vibrations on a dashboard of a car driving on a dirt road). Ameta-material panel material integrated into these structures reducesthe vibrations, thus making the vehicles less noisy and more riderfriendly. In other cases, it is desirable to excite a meta-materialpanel at an anti-resonance to cancel vibrations of the aircraft orvehicle structure. The stiffness may vary over a wide range in order toadapt to a range of input frequencies (the resonant frequency isproportional to the square root of the disturbance frequency). In theseapplications, weight and space is at a premium so the present inventionoffers a multifunctional panel—both a structural and active vibrationcontrol material.

Such weight-and-space-saving vibration canceling structures are usefulin space applications. Structural skins or supporting truss structuresused in morphing space structures may include adaptive meta-materialsdescribed herein. Existing space structures may benefit from adaptivecomposites that minimize vibrations during deployment or aiming ofantennae or solar arrays, for example. The Canadarm can also usevibration and damping improvements provided by a meta-material skindescribed herein. Since the arm can hold relatively large payloads, awide range of dynamic adjustment is needed. Vibration and noisecanceling structures may also be integrated into a cargo bay or anotherportion of the space shuttle to minimize shock and acoustic damage tosensitive payloads during launch and engine burns.

In general, an adaptive meta-material may be used to control damping inresponse to planar stretching or bending of any deformable structure.Thus the meta-material may be included as a part of an overall vibrationcontrol system. The resulting structure may be considered a solid-statematerial whose stiffness and damping can be actively controlled. Forexample, the present invention also enables beams with inherentvibration control. Such beams are very useful in a wide array ofapplications. Meta-materials claimed herein may also replacevariable-impedance automotive suspensions that currently employharder-to-control, leak-prone, and environmentally sensitivemagnetorheological and electrorheological fluids.

Meta-materials described herein may also be used in biomimicry and humaninteraction applications such as adaptive prosthetics, orthotics androbotics. In a specific embodiment, a meta-material is used to modulatejoint stiffness and damping in a prosthetic and orthotic device toprovide the user with a more efficient and stable gait or dexterity overa wide range of terrains and conditions. Meta-materials that allowelectrical control of stiffness and damping properties may address theshortcomings of existing prosthetic and orthotic devices. For example,meta-materials do not require coils as do conventional electromagneticand magnetoreheological devices. Since they are entirely solid, theycannot leak and are relatively insensitive to temperature changes. Inaddition, electrostatically clamping meta-materials are relatively lightand energy efficient because their control is based on an electricfield. The materials can be formed into thin sheets, so that they can beused with form-fitting orthoses as well as prostheses. These thinstructures may also form the basis of an adaptive socket whose size andshape can be adjusted by the user according to preference. In additionto prostheses and orthoses, these controlled-stiffness materials may beapplied to other medical needs. For example, they may be used to makeadaptive casts, braces or splints that can be readjusted or loosened toallow for more comfort when resting or changes in the desired support orjoint position during the healing process. This mechanically adjustablebraces and splints thus provide adaptable protection in addition tomotion.

The present invention is also well suited for use in high-energyabsorption applications. These applications benefit from a material withhigh toughness, large ductile strain to failure, and high elasticmodulus. In this case, a meta-material combines the strengths of a metal(or another rigid component) with the ductility of a compliant layer.Ballistics, crash protection, and high-speed impact applicationsrepresent exemplary applications where meta-materials of the presentinvention find use as dynamic and high-speed energy absorbers.

In energy absorption applications, the meta-material may be temporarilyset to a high elastic modulus. When the stiffness due to the elasticmodulus has been overcome, the meta-material may then let one or moreactivation elements slip (or otherwise let the compliant layer deflect),reapply the activation voltage and absorb energy elastically at therenewed and high elastic modulus. This continual slippage andre-activation of high elastic modulus allows an extended strain tofailure, where significant energy is absorbed over stepwise periods oftemporary high modulus.

The ability to select the energy absorption characteristics of ameta-material allows for greater crash protection for vehicles, as wellas the occupants. For example, for a car including a meta-material andinvolved in a crash, sensors indicating the location of the impact couldcommunicate with a computer that determines the best pace for themeta-materials to deform and absorb energy or maintain rigidity.Similarly, if an unmanned vehicle crashed, the meta-material couldabsorb energy at certain locations and elastically recover its shapefollowing the crash.

The ability to control the voltage at which electrostatically clampingactivation elements slide is also useful for maximizing energyabsorption as applicable to armor. In a specific embodiment, increasedenergy absorption is achieved by allowing sliding just below a failurepoint of the electrostatic clamping. In effect, the meta-materialcombines the strength of a rigid material with the elongation of anelastic substrate. In this way it is possible to produce materials withgreater resilience or toughness. This ability not only protects thearmor, but also protects the wearer from second or third impacts.

Flexible clothing that can readily switch to hard armor ballisticcharacteristics represents a leap in protection. Body armor seeks toprevent the penetration of a projectile and dissipate its kinetic energyover a wide enough area so as not to cause impact trauma. At the sametime, wearers prefer the armor that is light and comfortable.Unfortunately, comfort and protection are competing requirements. Thepresent invention may thus provide both extremes according to usercontrol. Materials such as Kevlar and Zylon can be woven into thin andflexible materials, with the resulting materials able to preventpenetration. However, distributing the energy of impact benefits fromflexural rigidity associated with rigid ballistic inserts. The presentinvention may replace rigid ballistic inserts, which not only break uplarger, high-velocity projectiles such as rifle bullets, but alsoprotect the wearer from the blunt trauma injuries associated withkinetic energy transfer.

A material that can change from flexible to rigid on demand can thus becomfortable for to wear and yet afford a high degree of protection. Theadditional shock dissipation protection from rigidity could be enabledmanually (on entering dangerous areas, for example) or automatically inresponse to certain stimuli. Suitable stimuli include optical or IRmotion detection (“fly eye”), laser reflection, acoustic or sonicsignature and magnetic or capacitive proximity sensing depending on thenature of the threat.

By modulating the stiffness and damping, the meta-material can also beprotected from failure. If this modulation is done over a largedeformation, then a large amount of energy can be dissipated. Thus, inaddition to being able to switch the stiffness of the armor, materialswith controllable properties can offer improved protection bydissipating more energy than the same mass of a fixed property material.Activation element materials may include the same materials used inexisting body armor, such as ceramics in Small Arms Protective Inserts.In this case, the present invention provides penetration protection inaddition to shock dissipation (another way in which the material ismultifunctional).

Other applications where active control of stiffness, damping or anothermechanical property are useful include: medical devices, such asendoscopes, surgical tools, vascular intervention devices such as MRIcompatible stents, and arterial scraping devices; sporting equipmentsuch as skis, racquets, clubs, athletic clothing and shoes, sails on asail boat, and exercise equipment with variable resistance; furniturewith stiffness control for comfort; home and building components such aselectrostatic door locks; devices with active feedback such as keyboardsand braille devices; and many applications in an automobile such assuspensions, impact absorption/crumple zones, electrostatic brakes, andseat belts.

The present invention is also suited for use in a tentacle-type robot orother long, thin reconfigurable structure. The meta-material enables thetentacle to lock into a desired position or configuration. When clamped,the meta-material increases stiffness of the tentacle. The tentaclerobot may use any suitable actuator, such as one or more electricmotors. In one embodiment, the tentacle employs one or moreelectroactive polymer actuators and a meta-material. The electroactivepolymer provides for a simple and lightweight, yet highly articulatedsnake-like structure.

The tentacle robot may include a rolled electroactive polymer actuatordisposed in a tubular meta-material (see FIGS. 2K-2L). A rolledelectroactive polymer converts between electrical and mechanical energy;and includes a rolled electroactive polymer and at least two electrodesto provide the mechanical/electrical energy conversion. Rolledelectroactive polymer devices allow for compact electroactive polymerdevice designs that can be configured to actuate in many ways includinglinear axial extension/contraction, bending, and multi-degree of freedomactuators that combine both extension and bending. Rolled electroactivepolymers also provide a simple alternative for obtaining multilayerelectroactive polymer devices. In one embodiment, a rolled electroactivepolymer device employs a mechanism, such as a spring, that provides aforce to strain the polymer. Further description of rolled electroactivepolymer devices is included in commonly owned pending patent applicationSer. No. 10/793,401, which is incorporated by reference in its entiretyfor all purposes.

Such a tentacle robot is scalable to various sizes and applications. Thesize of the tentacle may vary from millimeters to meters in length, forexample. The robot may also include any number of degrees of freedom(DOF), as determined by the underlying actuation scheme. A long tentaclerobot is useful, for example, with space applications and on-orbitdiagnosis and repair of spacecraft (system 400 of FIG. 9). A shortertentacle robot employing a meta-material is also well suited for use inother robotics applications, such as end-effectors, fingers, snake-likerobots, etc.

In one embodiment, the tentacle robot includes one or more spiralelectrolaminate meta-material designs. FIGS. 10A-10C illustrate threeexemplary spiral meta-material designs. Referring initially to FIG. 10A,a cross-sectional view of a first spiral and tubular meta-material 250is shown.

Meta-material 250 includes an inner dielectric ribbon 252 upon whichupper electrode 254 and lower electrode 256 (thickness exaggerated forboth electrodes) are deposited on the same side. The coiled ribbon 252forms a deformable structure that may bend or stretch when noelectrostatic clamping voltage is applied via electrodes 254 and 256. Asthe ribbon 252 is coiled (in this case from the bottom to the top), thelower electrode 256 overlaps the upper electrode 254 of the previouswinding. This forms one extended activation element that spirals throughmeta-material 250. When an electrostatic clamping voltage differenceexists between the two electrodes 254 and 256, the layers of ribbon 252are electrostatically attracted together and clamp, resulting in asubstantially rigid tube. When the electrostatic clamping voltage isremoved, adjacent coils may slide past one another, allowing thedeformable structure to bend and/or stretch.

FIG. 10B shows a cross-sectional view of another coiled meta-material270 in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention.Meta-material 270 includes an inner dielectric ribbon 272 overlappedalong a tubular axis 274. Each coil 272 includes an insulating layer 276and multiple electrodes 277 and 278 disposed on the outside surface ofinsulating layer 276. More specifically, layer 276 includes twoelectrodes 277 a and 277 c and two electrodes 278 b and 278 d thatalternate in polarity on the surface. Electrodes 277 and electrodes 278have a different electrical connectivity. For example, electrodes 278may all be ground. As the layers 272 are coiled, electrode 277 on onelayer 272 overlaps an electrode 278 of the other polarity on anotherlayer 272. Electrostatic clamping voltages may be applied acrossinsulating layer 276 using electrodes 277 and electrodes 278. Byproviding multiple layers 272 of electrolaminates, meta-material 270provides a potentially stiffer and stronger tubular sheath thanmeta-material 250.

FIG. 10C shows a cross-sectional view of a third tubular meta-material290 in accordance with another specific embodiment of the presentinvention. Meta-material 290 includes an inner dielectric ribbon 292overlapped along a tubular axis similar to meta-material 270. In thiscase, however, each coil 292 includes four electrodes: A, B, C, and D.Layers 292 are coiled such that i) electrode A on one layer 292 overlapselectrode C on another layer 292, and ii) B overlaps D. As describedabove, by using an AC signal on multiple electrode pairs, chargeaccumulation in a dielectric or insulation layer can be avoided. Forexample, the A-C electrode pair can be energized out of phase (e.g., 90°or some other suitable time variation) with the B-D electrode pair inorder to maintain at least 50% area clamping at all times.

A fourth coiled and tubular variation (not shown) uses a singleelectrode, and successive coils do not necessarily overlap. A secondelectrode is disposed on the flexible tubular or cylindrical substrate(e.g., an electrode the outermost layer of an electroactive polymerroll, similar to the design of FIG. 2F). When a voltage is appliedbetween these two electrodes, the sheath electrostatically clamps to theflexible substrate, creating a rigid tubular structure. In oneembodiment, the insulative layer between the electrodes resides oneither the outside of the flexible substrate or the inside of themeta-material sheath.

There are design alternatives among these four variations. For example,a meta-material tube can have a shallow angle and many coils, or have asteep angle and very few coils. While a given length of the former wouldmost likely have better flexibility when the electrolaminate isinactive, it might also have a lower strength due to the thinner overlaparea in that region.

Another embodiment for integrating a meta-material with an electroactivepolymer roll or other tubular element is a cage structure about theelectroactive polymer roll. Each side of the cage may include aconductive tongue wrapped in an activation layer that slides into an outof a conductive-lined sheath. For example, each side may include apolyimide-wrapped copper tongue slides into a copper-lined sheath.De-activated, the electroactive polymer roll can bend as the tongueslides out of the sheath. If activated, the tongue is locked andprevents bending or axial extension of the electroactive polymer roll.

It is recognized that many of the previously mentioned embodiments mayalso be integrated with such tubular structures since they can all beformed into thin sheets or cylindrical shapes.

One advantage of the present invention is that facilitates shape changeof an object that includes a meta-material. In one embodiment, thepresent invention de-activates activation elements and reduces stiffnessof a meta-material before changing shape of the object. The object mayuse an actuator and/or energy from the environment to change shape. Oncethe new shape has been achieved, the activation elements are triggeredto lock in the new shape at an increased stiffness. Such shape changingability is useful in many applications, such as robotics andaeronautics.

While this invention has been described in terms of several preferredembodiments, there are alterations, permutations, and equivalents thatfall within the scope of this invention which have been omitted forbrevity's sake. For example, although the present invention has beendescribed in terms of several specific electrode materials, the presentinvention is not limited to these materials and in some cases mayinclude air as an electrode. It is therefore intended that the scope ofthe invention should be determined with reference to the appendedclaims.

1. A meta-material comprising: a deformable or reconfigurable structure;and a set of activation elements, where each activation element a)couples to the deformable structure, b) includes a component thatparticipates in an activation mechanism, and c) is configured to changebetween a first activation state and a second activation state, whereinthe meta-material includes a first value for a mechanical property whenat least one of the activation elements is in the first activation stateand the meta-material includes a second value for the mechanicalproperty when the at least one activation element has been activated tothe second activation state.
 2. The meta-material of claim 1 wherein thedeformable structure comprises a compliant layer.
 3. The meta-materialof claim 1 wherein each activation element includes a stiff componenthaving a stiffness greater than a stiffness for the deformablestructure.
 4. The meta-material of claim 3 wherein each activationelement is bendable but not extendable.
 5. The meta-material of claim 3wherein each activation element at least partially laterally overlaps anadjacent activation element.
 6. The meta-material of claim 3 whereineach activation element includes an electrode disposed on one surface ofthe stiff component.
 7. The meta-material of claim 6 wherein eachactivation element further includes an insulating layer disposed betweenthe electrode and either a) an adjacent activation element or b) thedeformable structure.
 8. The meta-material of claim 3 wherein a firstsubset of activation elements attach to a first surface of the compliantlayer and a second subset of activation elements attach to a secondsurface of the compliant layer that is opposite to the first surface. 9.The meta-material of claim 8 wherein an activation element in the firstsubset laterally overlaps in an activation element in the second subsetwhen the at least one activation element has been activated to thesecond activation state.
 10. The meta-material of claim 1 wherein eachactivation element in the set of activation elements includes anelectrostatic clamp in the second activation state.
 11. Themeta-material of claim 1 wherein the meta-material is configured suchthat activation of one or more of the activation elements in the set ofactivation elements permits a third value for the mechanical propertythat is between the first value and the second value.
 12. Themeta-material of claim 1 wherein the meta-material includes a firstshape when the at least one of the activation elements is in the firstactivation state and includes a second shape when the at least one ofthe activation elements has been activated to the second activationstate.
 13. The meta-material of claim 1 wherein the mechanical propertyis one of: toughness, elastic modulus, stiffness, damping, shape, andresilience.
 14. The meta-material of claim 1 further comprising alocking mechanism that reduces the energy required to maintain aposition of the meta-material when the at least one of the activationelement has been activated to the second activation state.
 15. Themeta-material of claim 1 wherein the activation element partiallycouples to the deformable structure.
 16. The meta-material of claim 1wherein the meta-material comprises a composite of two materials, one ofthe two materials includes an active or intrinsically variable materialand the one or more activation elements are included in the active orintrinsically variable material.
 17. The meta-material of claim 1further comprising independent electrical communication with eachactivation element in the set of activation elements.
 18. Themeta-material of claim 1 wherein each activation element attaches to thedeformable structure.
 19. The meta-material of claim 1 wherein a surfaceof the deformable structure is not flat.
 20. The meta-material of claim1 wherein the second state includes a different connectivity between theactivation elements than a connectivity between the activation elementsin the first state.
 21. The meta-material of claim 1 wherein themeta-material includes a different shape when the at least oneactivation element has been activated to the second activation statethan a shape for the meta-material when the at least one activationelement is in the first state.
 22. A meta-material comprising: adeformable structure; and a set of activation elements, where eachactivation element a) couples to the deformable structure, b) includes astiff component, and c) is configured to change between a firstactivation state and a second activation state, wherein themeta-material includes a first stiffness when at least one of theactivation elements is in the first activation state and themeta-material includes a second stiffness when the at least oneactivation element has been activated to the second activation state.23. The meta-material of claim 22 wherein the deformable structurecomprises a compliant layer.
 24. The meta-material of claim 22 whereinthe stiff component has a stiffness greater than a stiffness for thedeformable structure.
 25. The meta-material of claim 24 wherein eachactivation element is bendable but not extendable.
 26. The meta-materialof claim 24 wherein each activation element at least partially laterallyoverlaps an adjacent activation element.
 27. The meta-material of claim24 wherein each activation element includes an electrode disposed on onesurface of the stiff component.
 28. The meta-material of claim 27wherein each activation element further includes an insulating layerdisposed between the electrode and either a) an adjacent activationelement or b) the deformable structure.
 29. The meta-material of claim24 wherein a first subset of activation elements attach to a firstsurface of the compliant layer and a second subset of activationelements attach to a second surface of the compliant layer that isopposite to the first surface.
 30. The meta-material of claim 29 whereinan activation element in the first subset laterally overlaps in anactivation element in the second subset.
 31. The meta-material of claim22 further comprising independent electrical communication with eachactivation element in the set of activation elements.
 32. Themeta-material of claim 22 wherein each activation element in the set ofactivation elements includes an electrostatic clamp in the secondactivation state.
 33. The meta-material of claim 32 wherein a strengthfor the electrostatic clamp limits the second stiffness.
 34. Themeta-material of claim 32 wherein the set of activation elements ismechanically redundant.
 35. The meta-material of claim 22 wherein themeta-material is configured such that activation of one or more of theactivation elements in the set of activation elements permits a thirdstiffness that is between the first stiffness and the second stiffness.36. The meta-material of claim 22 wherein the meta-material includes afirst shape when the at least one of the activation elements is in thefirst activation state and includes a second shape when the at least oneof the activation elements has been activated to the second activationstate.
 37. The meta-material of claim 22 wherein the second stiffness istunable according to the number and location of activation elements thathave been activated.
 38. The meta-material of claim 37 wherein eachstiff component has an elastic modulus greater than about 100 MPa. 39.The meta-material of claim 37 wherein the first stiffness is less thanabout 10 MPa and the second stiffness is greater than about 100 MPa. 40.A meta-material comprising: a deformable structure; and a set ofactivation elements, where each activation element a) includes a stiffcomponent, b) couples to the deformable structure, and c) is configuredto change between a first activation state and a second activation statein response to external input, wherein the meta-material includes afirst damping coefficient when at least one of the activation elementsis in the first activation state and the meta-material includes a seconddamping coefficient when the at least one activation element has beenactivated to the second activation state.
 41. The meta-material of claim40 wherein each activation element includes a stiff component having astiffness greater than a stiffness for the deformable structure.
 42. Themeta-material of claim 41 wherein each activation element includes anelectrode disposed on one surface of the stiff component.
 43. Themeta-material of claim 40 wherein each activation element in the set ofactivation elements includes an electrostatic clamp in the secondactivation state that is not strong enough to withstand an externalforce being damped.
 44. A meta-material comprising: a deformablestructure; and a set of activation elements, where each activationelement includes a stiff component that couples to the deformablestructure, wherein the meta-material includes a first value for amechanical property when at least one of the activation elements is notelectrostatically clamped to another activation element and themeta-material includes a second value for the mechanical property whenthe at least one activation element has been electrostatically clampedto another activation element.
 45. The meta-material of claim 44 whereinthe stiff component comprises a conductive material.
 46. Themeta-material of claim 44 wherein the stiff component comprises acoupling portion that couples to the deformable structure and anelectrostatic clamping portion.
 47. The meta-material of claim 44further comprising an electrode attached to the stiff component.
 48. Themeta-material of claim 44 wherein each activation element at leastpartially laterally overlaps an adjacent activation element.
 49. Themeta-material of claim 48 wherein each activation element furtherincludes an insulating layer disposed between the electrode and eithera) an adjacent activation element or b) the deformable structure. 50.The meta-material of claim 44 wherein the deformable structure comprisesa compliant layer.
 51. The meta-material of claim 50 wherein a firstsubset of activation elements attach to a first surface of the compliantlayer and a second subset of activation elements attach to a secondsurface of the compliant layer that is opposite to the first surface.52. The meta-material of claim 51 wherein an activation element in thefirst subset laterally overlaps in an activation element in the secondsubset.
 53. The meta-material of claim 44 further comprising independentelectrical communication with each activation element in the set ofactivation elements.
 54. The meta-material of claim 44 wherein eachactivation element attaches to the deformable structure.
 55. Themeta-material of claim 44 wherein a surface of the deformable structureis not flat.
 56. A method of controlling a mechanical property for ameta-material, the meta-material comprising a deformable structure and aset of activation elements coupled to the deformable structure, themethod comprising: activating at least one activation element from afirst activation state to a second activation state, wherein themeta-material includes a first value for the mechanical property whenthe at least one activation element is in the first activation state andthe meta-material includes a second value for the mechanical propertywhen the at least one activation element has been activated to thesecond activation state.
 57. The method of claim 56 wherein activatingthe at least one activation element comprises applying an electrostaticclamping voltage to the least one activation element.
 58. The method ofclaim 57 wherein the set of activation elements is mechanicallyredundant.
 59. The method of claim 58 wherein the electrostatic clampingvoltage includes an AC signal.
 60. The method of claim 56 wherein themechanical property is one of: toughness, elastic modulus, stiffness,damping, shape, and resilience.
 61. The method of claim 56 furthercomprising activating the at least one activation element to a thirdactivation state and the meta-material includes a third value for themechanical property when the at least one activation element is in thethird activation state.
 62. The method of claim 56 wherein eachactivation element at least partially laterally overlaps an adjacentactivation element.
 63. The method of claim 56 wherein a surface of thedeformable structure is not flat.
 64. The method of claim 56 wherein thesecond state includes a different connectivity between the activationelements than a connectivity between the activation elements in thefirst state.
 65. The method of claim 56 wherein the meta-materialincludes a different shape when the at least one activation element hasbeen activated to the second activation state than a shape for themeta-material when the at least one activation element is in the firststate.
 66. A method of varying stiffness using a meta-material thatcomprises a deformable structure and a set of activation elementscoupled to the deformable structure, the method comprising: activatingat least one activation element from a first activation state to asecond activation state, wherein the at least one activation elementincludes a modulus of elasticity greater than that of the deformablestructure, and wherein the meta-material includes a first stiffness whenthe at least one activation element is in the first activation state andthe meta-material includes a second stiffness when the at least oneactivation element has been activated to the second activation state.67. The method of claim 66 further comprising de-activating the at leastone activation element from the second activation state to the firstactivation state.
 68. The method of claim 67 wherein the de-activationoccurs before overcoming one of a) an activation strength for the atleast one activation element, or b) the modulus of elasticity for the atleast one activation element.
 69. The method of claim 67 furthercomprising re-activating the at least one activation element from thefirst activation state to the second activation state.
 70. The method ofclaim 66 further comprising activating a different number of activationelements from the first activation state to the second activation stateso the meta-material includes a third stiffness when the differentnumber of activation elements has been activated to the secondactivation state.
 71. The method of claim 66 wherein the third stiffnessis less than second stiffness and greater than the first stiffness. 72.The method of claim 66 wherein the third stiffness causes themeta-material to match a resonance frequency witnessed by an object thatincludes the meta-material.
 73. The method of claim 66 wherein the thirdstiffness causes an object that includes the meta-material to avoid aresonance frequency witnessed by the object without the stiffnesschange.
 74. The method of claim 66 wherein activating the at least oneactivation element comprises applying an electrostatic clamping voltageto the least one activation element.
 75. The method of claim 74 whereinthe set of activation elements is mechanically redundant.
 76. The methodof claim 75 wherein the electrostatic clamping voltage includes an ACsignal.
 77. The method of claim 66 wherein each activation element atleast partially laterally overlaps an adjacent activation element. 78.The method of claim 66 wherein the second state includes a differentconnectivity between the activation elements than a connectivity betweenthe activation elements in the first state.
 79. The method of claim 66wherein the meta-material includes a different shape when the at leastone activation element has been activated to the second activation statethan a shape for the meta-material when the at least one activationelement is in the first state.
 80. The method of claim 66 wherein thefirst stiffness is less than about 10 MPa and the second stiffness isgreater than about 100 MPa.
 81. A method of changing shape of ameta-material, the meta-material comprising a deformable structure and aset of activation elements coupled to the deformable structure, themethod comprising: at least partially de-activating one or moreactivation elements; applying a force to the deformable structure suchthat the meta-material acquires a new shape; and activating the one ormore activation elements when the meta-material acquires the new shape.82. The method of claim 81 wherein the activation elements arede-activated such that the meta-material is compliant to an externalforce that moves the deformable structure.
 83. The method of claim 81wherein the activation elements are de-activated such that themeta-material decreases in stiffness from a first stiffness to a secondstiffness.
 84. The method of claim 81 wherein the first stiffness isgreater than about 100 MPa and the second stiffness is less than about10 MPa.
 85. The method of claim 81 wherein the meta-material is includedin one of: an airplane or other air vehicle, a car or other land vehicleor a robot, orthotic, prosthetic or unmanned system.
 86. The method ofclaim 81 wherein activating the one or more activation elementscomprises applying an electrostatic clamping voltage to one or moreactivation elements.
 87. The method of claim 86 wherein the set ofactivation elements is mechanically redundant.
 88. The method of claim87 wherein the electrostatic clamping voltage includes an AC signal. 89.The method of claim 81 wherein each activation element at leastpartially laterally overlaps an adjacent activation element.
 90. Themethod of claim 81 wherein the second state includes a differentconnectivity between the activation elements than a connectivity betweenthe activation elements in the first state.
 91. A method of absorbingenergy using a meta-material, the meta-material comprising a deformablestructure and a set of activation elements coupled to the deformablestructure, the method comprising: activating at least one activationelement from a first activation state to a second activation state,wherein the meta-material includes a first value for a mechanicalproperty when the at least one activation element is in the firstactivation state and the meta-material includes a second value for themechanical property when the at least one activation element has beenactivated to the second activation state; and applying a force to themeta-material such that the deformable structure deforms.
 92. The methodof claim 91 wherein activating the at least one activation elementcomprises applying an electrostatic clamping voltage to the least oneactivation element.
 93. The method of claim 91 wherein the mechanicalproperty is one of: toughness, elastic modulus, stiffness, damping,shape and resilience.
 94. The method of claim 91 wherein each activationelement at least partially laterally overlaps an adjacent activationelement.
 95. The method of claim 91 wherein the second state includes adifferent connectivity between the activation elements than aconnectivity between the activation elements in the first state.